Aluminium Al

spore: profile
id: aluminium
spore_version: 0.2
family: aluminium-alloys
name: Aluminium
abbreviation: Al
role: current-collector foil, conductor and heat-spreading metal
category: metals
type: aluminium
summary: >
  Aluminium (Al, CAS 7429-90-5) is the light silvery metal that the commercially pure 1xxx grades (such as 1100 and 1060) are made from.
  Its density is 2.7 g/cm3 and it melts at 660 °C. In lithium-ion cells it is the foil under the positive electrode: a Sony cell
  safety data sheet lists aluminium at 14% of the cell contents. Compared with the alloy 6061 it is much softer and weaker,
  but it conducts electricity and heat better and its surface oxide film protects it, except at the high voltages where the
  electrolyte can attack that film.
best_for: "Light, cheap electrical and thermal conduction, and a positive-electrode foil that stays passive in common lithium-ion electrolytes"
weakest_at: "Strength: annealed pure aluminium has a typical yield strength near 22 to 29 MPa, so it is not a structural metal on its own"
identity:
  formula: "Al (element); CAS 7429-90-5; PubChem CID 5359268"
  cas: "7429-90-5"
  crystal_system: "cubic (PubChem/HSDB colour and form entry: 'Silver white ductile metal, cubic')"
  source: pubchem-al
  where: "Names and identifiers, Molecular Formula and CAS sections; Color/Form section (HSDB entry)"
tags:
  environments: [low-earth-orbit]
  stresses: [vacuum-and-outgassing, atomic-oxygen, total-radiation-dose]
  applications: [batteries, thermal-control, structures, electronics-and-chips]
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: "Density (NIOSH/CAMEO entries)"
    value: 2.7
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions: {form: "metal, as listed for aluminium powder, aluminium molten and aluminium; temperature not stated", note: "the HSDB, OSHA and NIOSH pocket guide entries give 2.70 with no unit shown; ICSC gives 2.7 g/cm3"}
    method: "Value listed in a chemical-safety database (NIOSH, 2024, via CAMEO Chemicals; ICSC)"
    status: ground
    source: pubchem-al
    where: "Density section of the PubChem record (CAMEO Chemicals, ILO-WHO ICSC 0988 and HSDB entries)"
  - benchmark: density
    label: "Density of high-purity aluminium"
    value: 2.698
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions: {purity: "page covers 99.95% to above 99.996%", temperature: "not stated", basis: "page marked Reference Only"}
    method: "Value printed in a supplier's reference table that cites the ASM handbook \"Aluminum, Volume I\""
    status: ground
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Density"
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: "Melting point"
    value: 660
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions: {form: "metal", note: "NIOSH lists 1220 °F for the same entry; pressure not stated"}
    method: "Value listed in a chemical-safety database (HSDB and ICSC entries)"
    status: ground
    source: pubchem-al
    where: "Melting Point section of the PubChem record (HSDB, HMDB and ICSC entries)"
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: "Boiling point"
    value: 2327
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions: {pressure: "NIOSH lists 4221 °F at 760 mmHg for the same entry; the HSDB and ICSC entries give no pressure"}
    method: "Value listed in a chemical-safety database (HSDB and ICSC entries)"
    status: ground
    source: pubchem-al
    where: "Boiling Point section of the PubChem record"
  - benchmark: melting_range
    label: "Melting range of alloy 1100-O (solidus to liquidus)"
    value: 640
    value_high: 660
    bound: range
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O (at least 99% aluminium)", temper: "O, annealed", note: "solidus 640 °C, liquidus 660 °C; the page does not name its data source"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Thermal properties, rows Melting Onset (Solidus) and Melting Completion (Liquidus)"
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: "Electrical resistivity of high-purity aluminium"
    value: 2.6458
    unit: µΩ·cm
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "20 °C", purity: "99.95% to above 99.996% grades", basis: "page marked Reference Only"}
    method: "Value printed in a supplier's reference table that cites the ASM handbook \"Aluminum, Volume I\""
    status: ground
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Electrical resistivity (volume)"
  - benchmark: electrical_conductivity_iacs
    label: "Electrical conductivity of alloy 1100-O, equal volume"
    value: 59
    unit: "% IACS"
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", basis: "equal-volume comparison against the International Annealed Copper Standard", note: "the page also lists 190% IACS on an equal-weight basis and does not name its data source"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Electrical properties, row Electrical Conductivity: Equal Volume"
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: "Thermal conductivity of high-purity aluminium, converted"
    value: 247
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "25 °C", purity: "99.95% to above 99.996% grades", unit_in_source: "0.59 cal/cm2/cm/sec/°C"}
    method: "Calculated by Space Mushroom from the source value (0.59 cal/(cm·s·°C) x 418.4 J/cal x 100 cm/m = 247 W/(m·K)); the source value is a reference-table entry"
    status: calculated
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Thermal conductivity"
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: "Thermal conductivity of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 220
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", temperature: "not stated", note: "the page does not name its data source"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Thermal properties, row Thermal Conductivity"
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: "Thermal conductivity of 1100 aluminium at 293 K (curve-fit value)"
    value: 211.8
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "293 K", alloy: "1100 (UNS A91100)", fit_range: "data 4 to 300 K, equation 4 to 300 K", fit_error: "2 % relative to the underlying data"}
    method: "Calculated by Space Mushroom by evaluating the NIST log10 polynomial fit (coefficients a to i as printed on the NIST page) at 293 K; the page tabulates no values and gives only the equation"
    status: calculated
    source: nist-1100
    where: "Thermal Conductivity coefficient block (a = 23.39172, b = -148.5733, c = 422.1917, d = -653.6664, e = 607.0402, f = -346.152, g = 118.4276, h = -22.2781, i = 1.770187)"
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: "Thermal conductivity of 1100 aluminium at 77 K (curve-fit value)"
    value: 290.2
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "77 K", alloy: "1100 (UNS A91100)", fit_range: "data 4 to 300 K, equation 4 to 300 K", fit_error: "2 % relative to the underlying data"}
    method: "Calculated by Space Mushroom by evaluating the NIST log10 polynomial fit (coefficients a to i as printed on the NIST page) at 77 K"
    status: calculated
    note: "The same fit gives 211.8 W/(m·K) at 293 K, close to the 220 W/(m·K) listed for 1100-O in a materials database, which supports the transcription of the coefficients."
    source: nist-1100
    where: "Thermal Conductivity coefficient block (same coefficients as above)"
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    label: "Specific heat capacity of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 900
    unit: J/(kg·K)
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", temperature: "not stated"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Thermal properties, row Specific Heat Capacity"
  - benchmark: cte
    label: "Linear thermal expansion of high-purity aluminium"
    value: 22.5
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "not stated for the main entry; the same table lists 22.5 at 0 °C and 26.5 at 400 °C", unit_in_source: "10^-6 cm/cm/°C and µcm/cm/°C, equal to ppm/K", basis: "page marked Reference Only"}
    method: "Value printed in a supplier's reference table that cites the ASM handbook \"Aluminum, Volume I\""
    status: ground
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, rows CTE (linear) and CTE (low temp.)"
  - benchmark: cte
    label: "Thermal expansion of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 24
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", unit_in_source: "µm/m-K", temperature: "not stated"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Thermal properties, row Thermal Expansion"
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: "Elastic (Young's) modulus of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 69
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", temperature: "not stated"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Mechanical properties, row Young's Modulus"
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: "Tensile strength of high-purity aluminium, converted"
    value: 48.95
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "room temperature", purity: "99.95% to above 99.996% grades", unit_in_source: "7100 psi", condition_of_metal: "not stated"}
    method: "Calculated by Space Mushroom from the source value (7100 psi x 0.0068948 MPa/psi)"
    status: calculated
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Tensile strength"
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: "Yield strength of high-purity aluminium, converted"
    value: 22.06
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "room temperature", purity: "99.95% to above 99.996% grades", unit_in_source: "3200 psi", condition_of_metal: "not stated"}
    method: "Calculated by Space Mushroom from the source value (3200 psi x 0.0068948 MPa/psi)"
    status: calculated
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Yield strength"
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: "Elongation of high-purity aluminium"
    value: 50
    value_high: 65
    bound: range
    unit: "%"
    scope: material
    conditions: {temperature: "room temperature", purity: "99.95% to above 99.996% grades", specimen: "not stated"}
    method: "Range printed in a supplier's reference table that cites the ASM handbook \"Aluminum, Volume I\""
    status: ground
    source: alumiplate
    where: "Table of physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminium, row Elongation"
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: "Tensile strength of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 88
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", unit_in_source: "88 MPa (13 x 10^3 psi)", note: "the page does not name its data source"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Mechanical properties, row Tensile Strength: Ultimate (UTS)"
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: "Yield strength of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 29
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", unit_in_source: "29 MPa (4.2 x 10^3 psi)", note: "the page does not name its data source"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Mechanical properties, row Tensile Strength: Yield (Proof)"
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: "Elongation at break of alloy 1100-O"
    value: 32
    unit: "%"
    scope: material
    conditions: {alloy: "1100-O", temper: "O, annealed", specimen: "not stated"}
    method: "Value listed in a materials-property database"
    status: ground
    source: makeitfrom-1100o
    where: "Mechanical properties, row Elongation at Break"
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: "Tensile strength of cathode foil, FA5100 (AA1100 variant)"
    value: 245
    value_high: 310
    bound: range
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions: {product_form: "battery cathode foil, gauge 10 to 15 µm", temper: "H18/H19 (hard)", product: "Gränges FA5100, an AA1100 variant", note: "the sister product FA5101 (AA1060 variant) is listed at 180 to 230 MPa"}
    method: "Typical range listed in a manufacturer's datasheet"
    status: ground
    source: granges
    where: "Table of typical alloys, column Tensile Strength, row FA5100"
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: "Elongation A50 of cathode foil, FA5100 (AA1100 variant)"
    value: 1.5
    bound: lower
    unit: "%"
    scope: material
    conditions: {product_form: "battery cathode foil, gauge 10 to 15 µm", temper: "H18/H19 (hard)", product: "Gränges FA5100", note: "listed as >1.5; the sister product FA5101 is listed as >3"}
    method: "Minimum value listed in a manufacturer's datasheet (A50 gauge length not defined on the sheet)"
    status: ground
    source: granges
    where: "Table of typical alloys, column Elongation A50, row FA5100"
  - benchmark: foil_gauge
    label: "Gauge (thickness) of cathode foil"
    value: 10
    value_high: 15
    bound: range
    unit: µm
    scope: material
    conditions: {product_form: "battery cathode foil rolled to temper H18/H19", product: "Gränges FA5100 and FA5101", max_width: "1440 mm"}
    method: "Range listed in a manufacturer's datasheet"
    status: ground
    source: granges
    where: "Table of typical alloys, column Gauge"
  - benchmark: pack_mass_share
    label: "Aluminium share of a lithium-ion polymer cell (Sony NP-BX1)"
    value: 14
    unit: "%"
    scope: cell
    conditions: {product: "Sony NP-BX1 / SP94BPIN2C lithium ion polymer rechargeable battery pack (single cell)", rated: "1240 mAh (4.5 Wh), average operating voltage 3.60 V", basis: "concentration listed in the composition table; the sheet does not say whether it is by mass", sheet_date: "prepared 1 January 2019"}
    method: "Concentration listed in a manufacturer's safety data sheet composition table"
    status: ground
    source: sony-sds
    where: "Section 3, Composition / Information on Ingredients, row Aluminum (7429-90-5)"
corrosion:
  - environment: "Moist air (the oxide film)"
    headline: "In moist air an oxide film forms on aluminium and protects the metal from corrosion."
    effect: "The HSDB entry quoted in PubChem says that in moist air an oxide film forms which protects the metal from corrosion, and that aluminium is capable of taking a brilliant polish retained in dry air. A NASA study of thin uncoated aluminium films found the metal could protect itself through the oxide that forms on its surface. No oxide thickness was found in the sources opened."
    rating: low
    conditions: {basis: "qualitative database statement and the abstract of a ground test; no thickness or corrosion rate given", standard_potential: "Al3+/Al -1.66 V (HSDB)"}
    source: pubchem-al
    where: "Stability/Shelf Life and Other Experimental Properties sections (HSDB); see also nasa-tm89882"
  - environment: "Acids, alkalis and hot water"
    headline: "Aluminium reacts with dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acid and with potassium and sodium hydroxide, releasing hydrogen."
    effect: "HSDB lists the metal as soluble in HCl, H2SO4, hot water and alkalies, and says it reacts with dilute HCl, H2SO4, KOH and NaOH with evolution of hydrogen. It also says the metal is rapidly oxidised by water at 180 °C."
    rating: severe
    conditions: {basis: "database statements; concentrations and rates not given", temperature: "180 °C for the water statement"}
    source: pubchem-al
    where: "Solubility and Other Experimental Properties sections (HSDB entries)"
  - environment: "Lithium-ion electrolyte at high positive-electrode voltage"
    headline: "Aluminium foil stays passive in LiPF6 electrolytes but is attacked by imide salts above about 4 V against lithium."
    effect: "An open-access paper says aluminium is the most preferred cathode current collector because it forms a passive film that keeps the electrolyte and aluminium interface stable even above 4 V against Li/Li+. LiPF6 is the preferred salt because of that passivation, whereas LiTFSI tends to corrode aluminium and the FSI anion is corrosive above 4.0 V. The film formed with LiPF6 is described as mainly aluminium fluoride (AlF3) made by chemical attack of LiPF6 on the native Al2O3 oxide. Even LiPF6 electrolytes still corrode the collector at the potentials high-voltage cathodes use."
    rating: moderate
    conditions: {basis: "introduction of an open-access paper citing earlier work; tests in that paper used battery-grade aluminium foil and hybrid ionic-liquid electrolytes, anodic polarisation up to 4.7 V vs Li/Li+", electrolyte: "LiPF6 in alkyl carbonates (LP40) versus imide-salt electrolytes"}
    source: npj-collector
    where: "Abstract and Introduction"
  - environment: "Atomic oxygen in low Earth orbit"
    headline: "Uncoated thin aluminium films appeared to protect themselves with their own oxide layer in an oxygen test."
    effect: "NASA Lewis tested uncoated thin aluminium reflecting films under an oxygen plasma, using photomicrographs, electron microscopy, spectrophotometry, Auger analysis and mass measurements. The results supported the idea that the oxide layer protects the aluminium, and long-term specular reflectance of uncoated aluminium exceeded that of aluminium and silver reflectors with dielectric coatings. The abstract gives no numbers."
    rating: low
    conditions: {basis: "ground test in an oxygen plasma; abstract only, no flux, fluence or reflectance values read", form: "thin reflecting films"}
    source: nasa-tm89882
    where: "Abstract (NTRS record 19870012566)"
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: "Harmonised EU classification entry for aluminium (index 013-001-00-6) as shown in PubChem: one line gives pictogram flammable, signal word Danger, H250 (catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air) and H261 (in contact with water releases flammable gas); a second line gives Danger with H228 (flammable solid) and H261. The record does not say which physical form each line covers, and the CAMEO and ICSC entries it draws on describe powder."
      ghs: [H250, H261, H228]
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "GHS Classification section, entries from Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008"
    - text: "ECHA C&L notifications summary in PubChem (4079 reports from 35 notifications): H228 reported by 60.6% of reports, H250 by 34.2%, H261 by 90.8%; 338 of 4079 reports (8.3%) say the chemical does not meet GHS hazard criteria. Notifiers' classifications vary with the form and additives."
      ghs: [H228, H250, H261]
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "GHS Classification section, ECHA C&L Notifications Summary"
    - text: "Finely divided aluminium dust is easily ignited and forms explosive mixtures in a dust cloud in air; bulk dust damp with water may heat spontaneously, and the hazard is greater as fineness increases (HSDB). ICSC lists an autoignition temperature of 400 °C for the powder. HSDB also says aluminium dust or powder may cause minor irritation to lungs and eyes."
      ghs: []
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "Explosive Limits and Potential, Fire Potential, Autoignition Temperature and Skin, Eye, and Respiratory Irritations sections"
    - text: "Molten aluminium (CAMEO/ERG guide 169): transported molten above 705 °C; violent reaction with water, contact may cause an explosion or produce flammable gas, and contact causes severe burns to skin and eyes."
      ghs: []
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "Fire Hazards and Health Hazards sections (ERG Guide 169 excerpts)"
    - text: "Sony cell safety data sheet (NP-BX1, prepared 1 January 2019): class not applicable for a regulated class; the hazard named is heat generation or electrolyte leakage if terminals touch other metals, and the electrolyte is flammable. Aluminium is listed at 14%; the sheet gives no separate hazard for the aluminium itself."
      ghs: []
      source: sony-sds
      where: "Sections 2 and 3"
  failure_risks:
    - mode: "Pitting of the positive-electrode foil"
      trigger: "Imide-salt electrolytes (LiTFSI, LiFSI) at positive-electrode potentials above about 4.0 V against Li/Li+"
      consequence: "The passive film breaks down and the foil corrodes, so the collector can lose its stable interface; LiPF6 reduces this by forming an AlF3 layer."
      severity: moderate
      source: npj-collector
      where: "Abstract and Introduction"
    - mode: "Reaction with strong acids and alkalis"
      trigger: "Contact with dilute HCl, H2SO4, KOH or NaOH"
      consequence: "The metal dissolves and evolves hydrogen."
      severity: moderate
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "Other Experimental Properties section (HSDB)"
    - mode: "Low strength in annealed or pure form"
      trigger: "Use of annealed pure aluminium or 1100-O under load"
      consequence: "Typical yield strength is only 29 MPa for 1100-O (22.06 MPa converted for high-purity metal), so parts deform easily; cathode foil is supplied hard (H18/H19) at 245 to 310 MPa tensile to cope with handling."
      severity: moderate
      source: makeitfrom-1100o
      where: "Mechanical properties (yield); Gränges datasheet for the foil figure"
  side_effects:
    - text: "Pure aluminium has a high thermal expansion: 24 ppm/K for 1100-O (22.5 ppm/K for high-purity metal), so a bonded or bolted partner that expands less will be stressed when the temperature changes."
      affects: "Joints and coatings on aluminium foil and parts"
      source: makeitfrom-1100o
      where: "Thermal properties, row Thermal Expansion"
    - text: "As a shield, aluminium is not strongly protective against galactic cosmic rays: a review states that a typical ISS module wall is about 5 g/cm2 (about 2 cm of Al) and that 20 g/cm2 (8 cm of Al) would be adequate for solar particle events but would not significantly reduce the galactic cosmic ray dose, and would create secondary particles."
      affects: "Radiation dose behind aluminium walls"
      source: arssem
      where: "Introduction, discussion of passive shielding (surface density 5 g/cm2 and 20 g/cm2)"
  handling:
    - text: "Keep cut foil, dust and turnings away from water, acids, alkalis and ignition sources; the harmonised classification lists H261 (releases flammable gas with water) and dust is easily ignited (HSDB). Read the supplier's safety data sheet for the exact product."
      source: pubchem-al
      where: "GHS Classification and Fire Potential sections"
    - text: "Cells: do not open, crush, short or heat above 140 °F or incinerate (Sony sheet); store within -10 °C to 30 °C and do not expose to 60 °C."
      source: sony-sds
      where: "Section 7, Precautions for Safe Handling and Use"
  mitigations:
    - text: "Use LiPF6-based electrolytes (or add LiPF6 to imide-salt electrolytes) so a protective AlF3 film forms on the foil; the paper reports that adding LiPF6 reduced pitting in an FSI electrolyte."
      source: npj-collector
      where: "Introduction"
uses:
  - application: "batteries"
    device: "Positive-electrode current collector foil in lithium-ion cells"
    example: "A Sony cell safety data sheet (NP-BX1, a lithium ion polymer cell, 1240 mAh) lists aluminium at 14% of the contents and describes the cell surface as aluminium laminated film. Gränges sells AA1100 and AA1060 variant cathode foil at 10 to 15 µm gauge, and Targray sells battery-grade foil in alloys 1235, 1070, 1100 and 1060 at 10 to 15 µm."
    source: sony-sds
    where: "Section 3 (composition) and Section 9 (appearance); Gränges datasheet; Targray product page (see documents)"
  - application: "structures"
    device: "Module walls of the International Space Station (aluminium)"
    example: "A shielding review states that 5 g/cm2 is the typical surface density of the walls of an ISS module, about 2 cm of aluminium. It does not name the alloy."
    source: arssem
    where: "Introduction"
  - application: "optics-and-cameras"
    device: "Thin uncoated aluminium reflecting films considered for solar dynamic power systems (ground test only)"
    example: "NASA Lewis tested the films under an oxygen plasma to see whether the surface oxide protects them against atomic oxygen in low Earth orbit."
    source: nasa-tm89882
    where: "Abstract"
  - application: "electronics-and-chips"
    device: "Electrical applications"
    example: "USGS reports that in the United States the electrical sector took 9% of domestic aluminium consumption (transportation 36%, packaging 24%, building 13%) and that copper can replace aluminium in electrical and heat-exchange applications."
    source: usgs-mcs2026-aluminum
    where: "Domestic Production and Use paragraph; Substitutes"
supply:
  - subject: Aluminium (primary smelter production)
    producers:
      - {country: China, share_percent: 60.8, year: 2025}
      - {country: India, share_percent: 5.7, year: 2025}
      - {country: Russia, share_percent: 5.3, year: 2025}
      - {country: Canada, share_percent: 4.5, year: 2025}
      - {country: United Arab Emirates, share_percent: 3.6, year: 2025}
    recycling: "USGS: in 2025 aluminium recovered from purchased scrap in the United States was about 3.6 million tons, of which about 56% came from new scrap and 44% from old scrap; aluminium recovered from old scrap was equivalent to about 28% of apparent consumption."
    substitutes: ["USGS: composites can substitute for aluminium in aircraft fuselages and wings; composites, magnesium, steel and titanium in ground transportation; copper can replace it in electrical and heat-exchange applications."]
    source: usgs-mcs2026-aluminum
    where: "World Smelter Production and Capacity table, 2025e smelter production (world total 74,000 thousand t; China 45,000, India 4,200, Russia 3,900, Canada 3,300, UAE 2,700; shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes. US net import reliance 60% of apparent consumption in 2025e; US price 180 cents per pound in 2025e (ingot, average U.S. market spot)."
documents:
  - {title: "Wikipedia: Aluminium (crystal structure, Hall-Héroult process)", type: database, url: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium", year: 2026}
  - {title: "PubChem compound record: Aluminum (CID 5359268)", type: database, url: "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Aluminum"}
  - {title: "AlumiPlate reference properties of pure aluminum (cites ASM, Aluminum Volume I)", type: datasheet, url: "https://www.alumiplate.com/coating_reference_properties/"}
  - {title: "MakeItFrom: 1100-O Aluminum", type: database, url: "https://www.makeitfrom.com/material-properties/1100-O-Aluminum"}
  - {title: "NIST Cryogenic Material Properties: 1100 Aluminum (UNS A91100)", type: database, url: "https://trc.nist.gov/cryogenics/materials/1100%20Aluminum/1100%20Aluminum_rev.htm"}
  - {title: "Gränges battery cathode foil datasheet", type: datasheet, url: "https://prod.granges.com/globalassets/09.-kampanjer/06.-battery-cathode-foil/03.-contact/granges_datablad_battery_cathode_foil.pdf"}
  - {title: "Targray: aluminum foil for lithium-ion battery manufacturing", type: datasheet, url: "https://www.targray.com/li-ion-battery/foils/aluminum"}
  - {title: "Sony NP-BX1 safety data sheet (Tohoku Murata, QA-TR-91353)", type: datasheet, url: "https://asset.conrad.com/media10/add/160267/c1/-/en/001086173SD00/sigurnosni-podatkovni-list-1086173-kamera-akumulator-sony-np-bx1-36-v-1240-mah-npbx1ce.pdf", year: 2019}
  - {title: "Theivaprakasam et al., Passivation behaviour of aluminium current collector in ionic liquid alkyl carbonate (hybrid) electrolytes, npj Materials Degradation 2:13", type: paper, url: "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41529-018-0033-6", year: 2018}
  - {title: "NASA TM-89882: Effect of an oxygen plasma on uncoated thin aluminum reflecting films", type: report, url: "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870012566", year: 1987}
  - {title: "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Aluminum", type: report, url: "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf", year: 2026}
gaps:
  - "The metal process steps are taken from Wikipedia and the USGS 2026 summary only; the USGS bauxite and alumina chapter and an industry process reference were not opened, so the alumina refining step is not described from a primary source."
  - "No safety data sheet for the bulk metal or foil was opened; the GHS lines come from the PubChem record (EU harmonised entry and ECHA notifications), which describe powder forms and do not say what applies to solid foil."
  - "Mechanical values for the 1xxx grades come from a materials database (MakeItFrom, source not named) and a supplier reference table; the Aluminum Association and ASM handbook tables were not openly readable, so no design-allowable strengths are given."
  - "Only the thermal conductivity of 1100 was found as a curve fit (NIST, 4 to 300 K, 2% error); cryogenic strength and elongation of pure aluminium were not found as values."
  - "Oxide film thickness and the oxide's electrical behaviour were not found in an opened source; the 1972 NASA handbook CR-123772 states a figure for 6061 but is a scanned alloy-6061 document and was not used here."
  - "No TML/CVCM outgassing result, atomic-oxygen erosion yield, or flight exposure result for bare aluminium or battery foil was found. The NASA TM-89882 abstract is qualitative, and Outlaw's 1982 paper (NTRS 19820043311) reports a hydrogen outgassing figure only for baked 6061 samples, not pure aluminium."
  - "Radiation tolerance of the metal itself (displacement damage, neutron effects) was not found; only a statement about shielding thickness (5 g/cm2 ISS wall; 20 g/cm2 is 8 cm of Al) from a design review was recorded."
  - "Heat-sink and wiring use is sourced only through USGS sector shares and substitutes; no heat-sink thermal-performance study or wire conductor standard (for example 1350 conductor IACS values) was opened."
  - "Foil data: no datasheet for 1235 or 1070 battery foil was opened; Targray gives no tensile, elongation or purity values, and the ACS/ASM chemical composition limits for 1xxx grades were not read from the standard."
  - "Foil gauge, density and cell share were not combined into a mass-per-cell calculation; the Sony 14% is a listed concentration and the sheet does not state the basis (mass or other)."
  - "USGS critical-minerals and EU critical-raw-materials list status, and the bauxite and alumina ore chapter, were not opened for this profile (see the aluminium-6061 profile for bauxite)."
  - "The original ASM/MatWeb 1100-O datasheet, the NASA outgassing database entry, and the suppliersonline 1100-O page (HTTP 503) could not be read."
sources:
  wikipedia-al:
    title: "Aluminium (crystal structure, Hall-Héroult process)"
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium
    year: 2026
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  pubchem-al:
    title: "PubChem compound record: Aluminum (CID 5359268), incl. HSDB, ICSC, CAMEO Chemicals, OSHA, ECHA and EU CLP entries"
    id: "PubChem CID 5359268; PUG View JSON retrieved 2026-10-17"
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Aluminum
    kind: database
    license: PubChem open data (individual source terms apply)
  alumiplate:
    title: "AlumiPlate, Reference Characteristics: physical and mechanical properties of pure aluminum"
    id: "Cites American Society of Metals, Aluminum, Volume I. Properties, Physical Metallurgy and Phase Diagrams"
    url: https://www.alumiplate.com/coating_reference_properties/
    kind: web
    license: supplier web page (cited, not reproduced); marked Reference Only
  makeitfrom-1100o:
    title: "1100-O Aluminum, MakeItFrom.com material properties"
    id: "page last modified 2020-05-30; data source not named on the page"
    url: https://www.makeitfrom.com/material-properties/1100-O-Aluminum
    kind: database
    license: MakeItFrom web page (cited, not reproduced)
  nist-1100:
    title: "Material Properties: 1100 Aluminum (UNS A91100), NIST Cryogenic Material Properties"
    id: "NIST Cryogenics Technologies Group, curve fit for 4 to 300 K"
    url: https://trc.nist.gov/cryogenics/materials/1100%20Aluminum/1100%20Aluminum_rev.htm
    kind: database
    license: NIST public web page
  granges:
    title: "Gränges, Sustainable battery cathode foil (datasheet)"
    id: "Gränges battery cathode foil leaflet (FA5100, FA5101)"
    url: https://prod.granges.com/globalassets/09.-kampanjer/06.-battery-cathode-foil/03.-contact/granges_datablad_battery_cathode_foil.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  sony-sds:
    title: "Safety data sheet, Lithium Ion Polymer Rechargeable Battery Pack NP-BX1 / SP94BPIN2C, Sony Corporation, supplier Tohoku Murata Manufacturing"
    id: "No: QA-TR-91353, prepared Jan. 01, 2019 (copy hosted by Conrad)"
    url: https://asset.conrad.com/media10/add/160267/c1/-/en/001086173SD00/sigurnosni-podatkovni-list-1086173-kamera-akumulator-sony-np-bx1-36-v-1240-mah-npbx1ce.pdf
    year: 2019
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)
  npj-collector:
    title: "Passivation behaviour of aluminium current collector in ionic liquid alkyl carbonate (hybrid) electrolytes"
    id: "npj Materials Degradation (2018) 2:13; doi:10.1038/s41529-018-0033-6"
    url: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41529-018-0033-6
    year: 2018
    kind: paper
    license: Open access (Creative Commons; see journal page)
  nasa-tm89882:
    title: "Effect of an oxygen plasma on uncoated thin aluminum reflecting films (Parsons and Gulino)"
    id: "NASA-TM-89882, NTRS 19870012566, 1987"
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870012566
    year: 1987
    kind: report
    license: public domain (NASA)
  arssem:
    title: "ARSSEM: Active Radiation Shield for Space Exploration Missions (Battiston et al.)"
    id: "arXiv 1209.1907"
    url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1209.1907
    kind: paper
    license: arXiv preprint (see arXiv page)
  usgs-mcs2026-aluminum:
    title: "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Aluminum"
    id: "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026"
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
license: CC-BY-4.0

updated: "2026-10-17"
review:
  status: draft
  method: "assistant"
  checked_values: 25
  unreachable: 3
  caveats: 4
  note: "Values read from opened sources on 2026-10-17. Caveats: the 1100-O values come from a database that does not name its source; the high-purity values come from a supplier table marked Reference Only (it cites ASM); three conductivity and strength entries are conversions or curve-fit values made by Space Mushroom; GHS lines are from a database record that describes powder forms."

story:
  risk_groups:
    - title: "For people"
      level: 2
      verdict: "Solid is benign; powder and molten metal are not"
      lead: "The sources describe aluminium dust and molten metal as the real hazards. No safety data sheet for solid foil was opened."
      gap: "No supplier safety data sheet for bulk metal or foil was opened, so the hazard codes below come from a database record that mostly describes powder."
      points:
        - label: "Dust and powder"
          line: "The EU harmonised entry and the ECHA notifications in PubChem carry H228 (flammable solid), H250 (catches fire in air) and H261 (releases flammable gas with water). Finely divided dust is easily ignited and forms explosive mixtures in air, and the hazard is greater as fineness increases."
        - label: "Molten metal"
          line: "The ERG guide quoted in the record says molten aluminium reacts violently with water, may cause an explosion, and causes severe burns on contact."
        - label: "Inside a battery cell"
          line: "The Sony data sheet lists aluminium at 14% of the cell but names no hazard for the aluminium itself. The hazards it names are heat or electrolyte leakage if the terminals touch other metals, and a flammable electrolyte."
    - title: "If it fails"
      lead: "These routes come from a database record, an open-access battery paper and a shielding review. They are statements and ground tests, not field incident data."
      points:
        - label: "Foil attacked in the cell"
          line: "Imide-salt electrolytes corrode aluminium above about 4.0 V against lithium, which breaks the passive film. LiPF6 reduces this by forming a protective aluminium fluoride layer."
        - label: "Acids and alkalis"
          line: "Dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acid and potassium and sodium hydroxide dissolve it and release hydrogen."
        - label: "Soft when annealed"
          line: "Annealed 1100 has a typical yield strength of 29 MPa, so a part made of it bends easily. Cathode foil is supplied hard, at 245 to 310 MPa tensile strength."
        - label: "Weak radiation shield"
          line: "A shielding review says 20 g/cm2 of aluminium, about 8 cm, would not significantly reduce the galactic cosmic ray dose."
    - title: "Handling and storage"
      points:
        - label: "Keep dry and cool"
          line: "Keep dust and cut foil away from water, acids, alkalis and ignition sources, and read the supplier's safety data sheet."
        - label: "Cells"
          line: "The Sony sheet says do not open, crush, short or incinerate, store between -10 °C and 30 °C, and avoid exposure to 60 °C."
  why: >-
    Aluminium is a light metal that is soft and ductile in its pure form. Its surface reacts with air at once to form a thin oxide
    film, which the HSDB entry says protects the metal from corrosion in moist air. Commercially pure grades (1xxx, such as 1100
    and 1060, at least 99% aluminium for 1100) carry almost no alloying elements, which is why they conduct electricity and heat
    better than strong alloys such as 6061 but are far weaker. In lithium-ion cells the metal is used as thin foil under the
    positive electrode because the film keeps it stable even above 4 V against lithium, as long as the electrolyte is chosen with care.
  uses:
    - where: "Battery cathode foil"
      line: >-
        The Sony NP-BX1 cell data sheet lists aluminium at 14% of the contents. Gränges sells AA1100 and AA1060 variant foil at 10 to 15 µm gauge, and Targray lists
        foils in alloys 1235, 1070, 1100 and 1060.
    - where: "Space station walls"
      line: >-
        A shielding review says a typical ISS module wall is about 5 g/cm2, or about 2 cm of aluminium, without naming the alloy.
    - where: "Thin reflectors (ground test)"
      line: >-
        NASA tested uncoated thin aluminium reflecting films in an oxygen plasma. The results supported the idea that the surface oxide protects the metal.
        This was a ground test, not a flight.
    - where: "Electrical applications"
      line: >-
        USGS reports that the electrical sector took 9% of United States aluminium consumption in 2025, and that copper can replace aluminium in electrical uses.
  can_do:
    - label: "Weight"
      value: 2.7 g/cm3
      line: >-
        The density is 2.7 g/cm3 in the NIOSH and ICSC entries, and 2.698 g/cm3 for high-purity metal in a supplier table.
    - label: "Electrical conduction"
      value: 2.6458 µΩ·cm
      line: >-
        The electrical resistivity of high-purity aluminium at 20 °C is 2.6458 µΩ·cm in a supplier table that cites the ASM handbook. Alloy 1100-O is listed at 59% IACS, that is, 59%
        of the conductivity of annealed copper for the same volume.
    - label: "Heat conduction"
      value: 220 W/(m·K)
      line: >-
        Alloy 1100-O is listed at 220 W/(m·K). Evaluating the NIST curve fit for 1100 gives 211.8 W/(m·K) at 293 K and 290.2 W/(m·K) at 77 K, with a stated fit error of 2%.
        The aluminium-6061 profile lists a lower room-temperature value for that alloy.
    - label: "Melting"
      value: 660 °C
      line: >-
        The melting point is 660 °C, the boiling point 2327 °C. Alloy 1100-O is listed as melting from 640 to 660 °C.
    - label: "Strength"
      value: 29 MPa yield
      line: >-
        Alloy 1100-O is listed with a yield strength of 29 MPa, a tensile strength of 88 MPa and an elongation of 32%. High-purity metal in a supplier table has
        48.95 MPa tensile strength and 22.06 MPa yield strength (converted from 7100 and 3200 psi) and 50 to 65% elongation. The 6061 alloy in its T6 temper is much stronger (see the aluminium-6061 profile).
    - label: "Thermal expansion"
      value: 24 ppm/K
      line: >-
        Alloy 1100-O expands by 24 ppm/K, and high-purity metal by 22.5 ppm/K.
  compare: >-
    Against alloy 6061 (see its profile), pure aluminium is far softer but conducts heat better. USGS says
    copper can replace aluminium in electrical and heat-exchange applications, but this profile holds no copper values, so it does not rank the two.
  compare_rows:
    - {label: Density, benchmark: density}
    - {label: Thermal conductivity, benchmark: thermal_conductivity}
    - {label: Thermal expansion, benchmark: cte}
  handling:
    - Keep dust and cut foil away from water, acids, alkalis and ignition sources.
    - Use LiPF6-based electrolytes with aluminium positive-electrode foil rather than imide salts alone.
    - Read the supplier's safety data sheet before handling powder or molten metal.
  good_for:
    - "Conducting electricity and heat at low weight. Alloy 1100-O is listed at 59% IACS and 220 W/(m·K), at a density of 2.7 g/cm3."
    - "Positive-electrode foil in lithium-ion cells, where its passive film keeps it stable above 4 V against lithium with LiPF6 electrolytes."
    - "Thin foil that can be rolled to 10 to 15 µm and supplied hard at 245 to 310 MPa tensile strength."
  watch_out:
    - "Imide-salt electrolytes corrode aluminium above about 4.0 V against lithium."
    - "Dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acid and potassium and sodium hydroxide attack it, releasing hydrogen."
    - "Annealed metal is weak: 29 MPa yield for 1100-O."
    - "No outgassing, atomic-oxygen erosion yield or radiation tolerance value was found for the bare metal or foil."
  verdict: "Aluminium is a light, cheap conductor whose oxide film makes it the standard positive-electrode foil in lithium-ion cells. Its weak points in the record are low strength when annealed, attack by strong acids, alkalis and some battery salts, and the absence of space-environment numbers here."
  recipe:
    line: "Aluminium is a single-element metal (Al) with a face-centred cubic crystal structure (Wikipedia). The ore is bauxite (USGS, world resources note). The Hall-Héroult process converts alumina into the metal (Wikipedia). USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries reports that primary aluminum is made in smelters, and it counts the primary smelters by country."
    parts:
      - name: Aluminium
        symbol: Al
        atoms: 1
        atomic_weight: 26.981538
        role: "The whole material. PubChem prints the molecular weight of the element as 26.981538."