Stainless steel 316 316 (UNS S31600)

spore: profile
id: stainless-316
spore_version: 0.2
family: stainless-austenitic
name: Stainless steel 316
abbreviation: 316 (UNS S31600)
role: structural alloy
category: metals
type: steels-and-stainless
summary: |
  Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel, the second most common austenitic grade after 304 (Wikipedia). It is an iron alloy with 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel and 2 to 3 percent molybdenum (datasheet). The molybdenum gives it better general, pitting and crevice corrosion resistance than 304, and higher creep and tensile strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa and a minimum yield of 205 MPa (ATI). It is a separate grade from 316L, which caps carbon at 0.03 percent.
best_for: Chloride-bearing and marine-grade service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate
weakest_at: Crevice and pitting attack in seawater condenser tubes, intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C, and modest strength next to precipitation-hardened grades
identity:
  formula: Fe balance, 16 to 18 Cr, 10 to 14 Ni, 2 to 3 Mo, max 0.08 C, 2 Mn, 0.75 Si, 0.045 P, 0.03 S, 0.10 N (wt%)
  source: upmet-316
  where: Chemical composition table (first table, 316/316L)
  designations:
    - system: UNS
      code: S31600
      source: alleima-list
      where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, rows 6LR62 and 5R60, UNS column
    - system: EN
      code: '1.4401'
      source: alleima-list
      where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 6LR62, EN steel no. column
    - system: EN
      code: '1.4436'
      source: alleima-list
      where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 5R60, EN steel no. column
    - system: EN name
      code: X3CrNiMo 17-13-3
      source: swiss-1-4436
      where: EN 10088-3 line for 1.4436, datasheet created 2000
    - system: ASTM
      code: '316'
      source: alleima-list
      where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, ASTM column, rows 6LR62 and 5R60
    - system: ASTM
      code: A240
      source: outokumpu-standards
      where: Table 19 basic standards list for plate, sheet and strip, generic for stainless steel and not 316 specific
    - system: ASTM
      code: A276
      source: carpenter-316
      where: Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, shared with 316L
    - system: ASTM
      code: A182
      source: carpenter-316
      where: Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, grade suffix F316 not printed
    - system: BS
      code: 58H
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: aalco-316-bar
      where: Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent
    - system: JIS
      code: SUS 316
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: outokumpu-standards
      where: Table 4, JIS column, 4401 row
    - system: ISO
      code: 4401-316-00-I
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: outokumpu-standards
      where: Table 5, ISO column, 4401 row
    - system: ISO
      code: 4436-316-00-I
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: outokumpu-standards
      where: Table 5, ISO column, 4436 row
    - system: BS
      code: 316S31
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: aalco-316-bar
      where: Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent
    - system: BS
      code: 316S33
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: outokumpu-standards
      where: Table 5, BS/UK column, 4436 row
tags:
  environments: []
  stresses: []
  applications:
    - structures
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    value: 8.027
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: not printed
    method: Physical properties table, printed as 0.29 lb/in3 (8.027 g/cm3)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Density row)
  - benchmark: density
    value: 7.87
    value_high: 8.07
    unit: Mg/m3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Density row)
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    value: 200
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: not printed
    method: Physical properties table, printed as 29 x 10^6 psi (200 GPa)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Elasticity in Tension row)
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    value: 190
    value_high: 205
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Young's Modulus row)
  - benchmark: shear_modulus
    value: 82
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: not printed
    method: Physical properties table, printed as 11.9 x 10^6 psi (82 GPa)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Shear row)
  - benchmark: bulk_modulus
    value: 134
    value_high: 152
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Bulk Modulus row)
  - benchmark: poissons_ratio
    value: 0.265
    value_high: 0.275
    unit: dimensionless
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Poisson's Ratio row)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 205
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed)
      temperature: not printed
      basis: 0.2 percent offset
    method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 30,000 psi (205 MPa)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Yield Strength 0.2 percent offset row)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 205
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)
      temper: not named on the page
      temperature: not printed
      basis: minimum
    method: Product table, minimum as printed (30 ksi min)
    status: ground
    source: ati-316
    where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Yield Strength row)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 515
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed)
      temperature: not printed
    method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 75,000 psi (515 MPa)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Ultimate Tensile Strength row)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 515
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)
      temper: not named on the page
      temperature: not printed
      basis: minimum
    method: Product table, minimum as printed (75 ksi min)
    status: ground
    source: ati-316
    where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Tensile Strength row)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 480
    value_high: 620
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Tensile Strength row)
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 40
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: not printed
      gauge: 2 in or 51 mm
    method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Percent Elongation row)
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 40
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)
      temper: not named on the page
      temperature: not printed
      basis: minimum
    method: Product table, minimum as printed (40% min)
    status: ground
    source: ati-316
    where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Elongation row)
  - benchmark: hardness
    value: 217
    unit: HB
    bound: upper
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: not printed
      basis: maximum
    method: Mechanical properties table, Hardness Max Brinell row
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Hardness, Max. Brinell row)
  - benchmark: hardness
    value: 95
    unit: HRB
    bound: upper
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)
      temper: not named on the page
      temperature: not printed
      basis: maximum
    method: Product table, maximum as printed (95 HRB max)
    status: ground
    source: ati-316
    where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Hardness row)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    value: 1390
    value_high: 1440
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: melting range
    method: Physical properties table, melting range as printed (2540 to 2630 F)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Melting Range row)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    value: 1648
    value_high: 1673
    unit: K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: melting range
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Melting Point row)
  - benchmark: cte
    value: 16.5
    unit: 10-6/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: 20 to 100 C mean
      unit_in_source: 10-6 cm/cm/°C
    method: Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 16.5 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 100 C row)
  - benchmark: cte
    value: 18.2
    unit: 10-6/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: 20 to 500 C mean
      unit_in_source: 10-6 cm/cm/°C
    method: Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 18.2 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 500 C row)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    value: 14.6
    unit: W/m.K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: 20 to 100 C
    method: Thermal conductivity table, printed as W/m K
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Thermal Conductivity table (20 to 100 C row)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    value: 13
    value_high: 17
    unit: W/m.K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Thermal Conductivity row)
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    value: 450
    unit: J/kg.K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)
      temper: not printed in this row
      temperature: 20 C
      unit_in_source: J/kg °K
    method: Specific heat table, printed as J/kg °K at 20 C (450 J/kg °K at 93 C also printed)
    status: ground
    source: upmet-316
    where: Specific Heat table (20 C row)
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    value: 490
    value_high: 530
    unit: J/kg.K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Specific Heat row)
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    value: 69
    value_high: 81
    unit: 10-8 ohm.m
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Resistivity row)
  - benchmark: fatigue_strength
    value: 256
    value_high: 307
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: not stated
      basis: endurance limit as printed; test cycles and method not stated
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Endurance Limit row)
  - benchmark: max_service_temp
    value: 1023
    value_high: 1198
    unit: K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated
      temper: not stated
      temperature: service limit as printed
    method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)
    status: ground
    source: azom-316
    where: Property table (Maximum Service Temperature row)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 656
    value_high: 663
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, 25.4 mm thick
      temper: annealed (Table I title)
      temperature: 4 K
      test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s
    method: Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, both 4 K rows as printed
    status: ground
    source: nist-nbsir-80-1627
    where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (4 K rows)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 193
    value_high: 213
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, 25.4 mm thick
      temper: annealed (Table I title)
      temperature: 295 K
      test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s
    method: Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, three 295 K rows as printed
    status: ground
    source: nist-nbsir-80-1627
    where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (295 K rows)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 102
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: plate, 25.4 mm thick
      temper: annealed (Table I title)
      temperature: 922 K
      test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield
    method: Table I, 922 K row, footnote says the elevated-temperature data are from Sikka
    status: ground
    source: nist-nbsir-80-1627
    where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (922 K row)
corrosion:
  - environment: Seawater and marine service
    headline: 316 is the preferred steel for marine environments, but it is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes.
    effect: Wikipedia says 316 resists pitting better than most grades without molybdenum, and is the preferred steel for marine use. It also says 316 and 316L are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion in seawater condenser tubes, and that 316L is typically the minimum grade near the seashore.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      environment: seawater, near-seashore and condenser tube service
      temperature: not stated
    source: wiki-marine-316
    where: Marine grade stainless article, sections on 316 and on seawater
  - environment: General corrosion in ordinary environments
    headline: More resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, per the datasheet.
    effect: The datasheet describes Type 316 as a molybdenum-bearing austenitic grade, more resistant to general corrosion and to pitting and crevice corrosion than chromium-nickel grades such as Type 304. It adds higher creep, stress-to-rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures.
    rating: low
    conditions:
      form: sheet, coil and bar
      temperature: not stated
    source: upmet-316
    where: More about 316/316L text
  - environment: Heating between 500 and 900 C, sensitization
    headline: Heating between 500 and 900 C made the experimental 316 susceptible to intergranular attack. Its time-temperature curve has its nose at 800 C.
    effect: An experimental AISI 316 heat solution-annealed at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quenched was not susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Heat treatment from 500 to 900 C caused susceptibility in the ASTM A262 practice A test. M23C6 carbide formed at grain boundaries first, and further phases and M6C carbide appeared with longer holds. The nose of the time-temperature-sensitisation curve is at 800 C with a minimum time of 20 min, and 800 C for 10 min did not cause sensitisation.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      temperature: 500 to 900 C heat treatment
      time: 10 min to 1000 h (study range)
      test: ASTM A262 practice A
      heat: experimental AISI 316 steel
    source: epa-acta-316-aging
    where: Abstract; Conclusions 1 and 2; TTS diagram (Fig. 3)
  - environment: Ageing at 750 C
    headline: Secondary phases grow at grain boundaries as the ageing time at 750 C increases.
    effect: Micrographs of AISI 316 aged at 750 C for 10 min, 5 h, 300 h and 1000 h show few particles after 10 min and more precipitate at the boundaries with longer times. The paper plots the fraction of each secondary phase against ageing time at 750 C (Figure 13). Its corrosion effect at 750 C is not quantified in the abstract.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      temperature: 750 C
      time: 10 min to 1000 h
      heat: experimental AISI 316 steel
    source: epa-acta-316-aging
    where: Figures 4 to 13 (microstructures and secondary-phase fractions after ageing at 750 C)
  - environment: Sea water on the AZoM resistance scale
    headline: AZoM rates 316 at 5 of 5 for sea water, which conflicts with the Wikipedia warning for condenser tubes.
    effect: The AZoM resistance table rates Type 316 on a 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) scale, with sea water 5, fresh water 5, strong acid 5, weak acid 5, oxidation at 500 C 5, UV 5 and wear 4. The scale has no conditions and no crevice or pitting detail.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      scale: 1 poor to 5 excellent
      temperature: not stated
    source: azom-316
    where: Environmental Properties, Resistance Factors table
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: PubChem aggregated GHS notifications for elemental nickel include H317 (may cause an allergic skin reaction), H351 (suspected of causing cancer), H372 (causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure) and H412 (harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects), with signal word Danger in the notifications. These cover the element, not the 316 alloy.
      ghs:
        - H317
        - H351
        - H372
        - H412
      source: pubchem-nickel
      where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 935)
    - text: PubChem notifications for elemental chromium include H317, H319 (causes serious eye irritation), H334 (may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled) and H341 (suspected of causing genetic defects). Signal words differ between notifications, and the record is not a supplier classification.
      ghs:
        - H317
        - H319
        - H334
        - H341
      source: pubchem-chromium
      where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23976)
    - text: PubChem notifications for elemental molybdenum include H315 (causes skin irritation), H319 (causes serious eye irritation) and H335 (may cause respiratory irritation), with signal words Warning and Danger across notifications.
      ghs:
        - H315
        - H319
        - H335
      source: pubchem-molybdenum
      where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23932)
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Chloride pitting and crevice corrosion in seawater
      trigger: Seawater or near-seashore chloride, especially in crevices and in condenser tubes
      consequence: Local attack that Wikipedia says 316 does not resist well enough for seawater condenser tubes; 316L is the usual minimum near the seashore
      severity: moderate
      source: wiki-marine-316
      where: Marine grade stainless article, seawater and 316 sections
    - mode: Intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C
      trigger: Heating or holding in the 500 to 900 C range
      consequence: Grain-boundary carbide and secondary phases lower local corrosion resistance; the EPA study found the experimental heat susceptible after heat treatment in this range
      severity: high
      source: epa-acta-316-aging
      where: Abstract; Conclusions
  side_effects: []
  handling:
    - text: Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels, according to the datasheet.
      source: upmet-316
      where: More about 316/316L text
    - text: Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated.
      source: epa-acta-316-aging
      where: Abstract; Conclusions 1
    - text: Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization and is preferred for medical implants.
      source: wiki-marine-316
      where: Composition table (316L row) and uses text
  mitigations:
    - text: Use 316L for near-seashore service, where Wikipedia gives 316L as the typical minimum grade.
      source: wiki-marine-316
      where: Marine grade stainless article, seashore section
    - text: Solution-anneal at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quench, the treatment that kept the experimental heat free of intergranular susceptibility.
      source: epa-acta-316-aging
      where: Abstract
uses:
  - application: structures
    device: Aerospace structures
    example: The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part.
    source: upmet-316
    where: Industry Applications list
  - application: structures
    device: Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment
    example: Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants.
    source: wiki-marine-316
    where: Composition table (316 row, general grade uses column)
supply:
  - subject: Nickel production by country
    abundance: World mine production 3.9 million t in 2025 (estimated); world reserves more than 140 million t, of which Indonesia holds 62 million t (USGS 2026).
    producers:
      - country: Indonesia
        share_percent: 66.7
        year: 2025
        basis: 2,600,000 t of 3,900,000 t mine production (estimated), computed from printed tonnage
      - country: Philippines
        share_percent: 6.9
        year: 2025
        basis: 270,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 5.1
        year: 2025
        basis: 200,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed
      - country: New Caledonia
        share_percent: 3.6
        year: 2025
        basis: 140,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed
      - country: Canada
        share_percent: 3.6
        year: 2025
        basis: 140,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed
      - country: China
        share_percent: 3.1
        year: 2025
        basis: 120,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: In 2025 nickel recovered from scrap was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption, and most secondary nickel is stainless-steel scrap.
    substitutes:
      - Low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in construction
      - Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments
    source: usgs-nickel-2026
    where: World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes
  - subject: Nickel use and US import reliance
    abundance: Stainless and alloy steel plus nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85 percent of US consumption. US net import reliance was 41 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated).
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Recycled nickel was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-nickel-2026
    where: Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics (net import reliance row)
  - subject: Chromium production by country
    abundance: World mine production about 51 million t gross weight in 2025 (estimated; printed as 51,000 thousand metric tons). World resources greater than 12 billion t of shipping-grade chromite, 95 percent in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026).
    producers:
      - country: South Africa
        share_percent: 45.1
        year: 2025
        basis: 23,000 of 51,000 thousand t gross weight (estimated), computed
      - country: Turkey
        share_percent: 17.6
        year: 2025
        basis: 9,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed
      - country: Kazakhstan
        share_percent: 13.7
        year: 2025
        basis: 7,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed
      - country: India
        share_percent: 5.9
        year: 2025
        basis: 3,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed
      - country: Brazil
        share_percent: 3.9
        year: 2025
        basis: 2,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed
      - country: Zimbabwe
        share_percent: 3.9
        year: 2025
        basis: 2,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Recycled chromium in stainless-steel scrap receipts was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.
    substitutes:
      - Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use (USGS 2026)
    source: usgs-chromium-2026
    where: World Mine Production and Reserves; World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling
  - subject: Chromium import reliance
    abundance: 'US net import reliance 79 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated). Chromite imports 2021 to 2024: South Africa 96 percent, Turkey 3 percent (USGS 2026).'
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Recycled chromium was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-chromium-2026
    where: Salient Statistics; Import Sources (2021-24)
  - subject: Molybdenum production by country
    abundance: World mine production 260,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated). China, Chile, the United States, Peru and Mexico account for 90 percent of world production (USGS 2026). China imposed export controls on molybdenum powders in February 2025.
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 37.3
        year: 2025
        basis: 97,000 t of 260,000 t mine production (estimated), computed
      - country: Chile
        share_percent: 16.2
        year: 2025
        basis: 42,000 t of 260,000 t, computed
      - country: United States
        share_percent: 15.4
        year: 2025
        basis: 40,000 t of 260,000 t, computed
      - country: Peru
        share_percent: 15
        year: 2025
        basis: 39,000 t of 260,000 t, computed
      - country: Mexico
        share_percent: 6.5
        year: 2025
        basis: 17,000 t of 260,000 t, computed
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Molybdenum in recycled steel, superalloy and catalyst scrap may be as much as 30 percent of apparent supply (USGS 2026).
    substitutes:
      - There is little substitution for molybdenum in steels; potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium and vanadium in alloy steels (USGS 2026)
    source: usgs-molybdenum-2026
    where: World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes; Events, Trends, and Issues
  - subject: Molybdenum US position
    abundance: The United States is a net exporter of molybdenum (USGS 2026). US mine production was 40,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated).
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: ''
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-molybdenum-2026
    where: Salient Statistics (net import reliance row, note E Net exporter); Domestic Production and Use
  - subject: Critical-mineral policy
    abundance: USGS 2026 notes Executive Order 14285 (April 2025), which calls for seabed mineral development to help secure supplies of critical minerals such as nickel. The text does not reproduce a critical-minerals list.
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: ''
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-nickel-2026
    where: Events, Trends, and Issues
media: []
documents:
  - title: 'United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel (UNS S31600, plate, sheet and strip product data)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316
  - title: 'NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures (Table I, annealed AISI 316)'
    type: report
    url: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf
    year: 1980
  - title: 'Dommankova et al. 2014: The Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C (Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3))'
    type: paper
    url: https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf
    year: 2014
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON
    year: 2026
  - title: 'PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON
    year: 2026
  - title: 'PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON
    year: 2026
  - title: 'Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys
  - title: 'Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf
  - title: 'Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx
  - title: 'Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf
    year: 2025
  - title: 'Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf
    year: 2000
gaps:
  - No ASTM A240 page was read directly. Composition comes from the datasheet and the Wikipedia table. AZoM gives a different range for the same grade (Cr 16 to 18.5, C under 0.03) and was not used for composition.
  - The datasheet, AZoM and ATI mechanical values do not print a temper. ATI names ASTM A240 but no temper, so the annealed condition is confirmed only for the NIST plate in Table I.
  - Cryogenic and elevated-temperature yield values come from one NIST heat of annealed 25.4 mm plate in a 1980 report. No cryogenic values for 316 sheet or bar were found, and no 4 K tensile strength or elongation was read.
  - Hardness is not in the canonical property list, so the name hardness is used. The datasheet gives Brinell maximum and ATI gives Rockwell B maximum.
  - The datasheet electrical resistivity of 74.0 microhm-cm at 20 C was not added, because its unit string may not match the registry key microohmcm. Only the AZoM range is in the file.
  - The EU and USGS critical-mineral lists were not read, so critical_lists are empty.
  - Nickel, chromium and molybdenum shares are mine production only. Refinery and smelting shares were not read.
  - Hazard data are PubChem element records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No safety data sheet for 316 was read, and the GHS notifications are not a supplier classification.
  - No NASA or ESA source naming 316 in a spacecraft part was found. The uses come from the datasheet and Wikipedia, so the space link is not sourced.
  - A search result on 316L weld-metal toughness after 850 C ageing was seen but not read on a fetched page, so it is not used.
  - The Ulbrich 316 page was blocked by a security check. Its notes on cold-work magnetism and forming were not used.
  - The Outokumpu global standards PDF was read this run for designations only. Recycling and substitutes for 316 itself were not sourced beyond the nickel, chromium and molybdenum totals.
  - The EPA study used an experimental 316 heat, not a commercial bar or sheet, so its sensitization and ageing results are shown as the study findings only.
  - 'Designations: no page read this run printed ASTM A312 or the F316 grade suffix. Carpenter prints A182 without F316, so A182 is listed without it and A312 is not listed.'
  - 'Designations: the DIN steel name X5CrNiMo17-12-2 for 1.4401 was not printed on any page read this run, so the DIN entry is the number 1.4401 only.'
  - 'Designations left out: Outokumpu''s Supra 316/4401 page lists EN 1.4404 with 1.4401, but 1.4404 is 316L; Swiss Steel''s 1.4436 sheet prints BS 316 S13, which Outokumpu gives to 316L; AFNOR, SS, GB and KS names and AMS product specs were printed but sit outside the requested systems.'
  - 'Poisson''s ratio: the file already has 0.265 to 0.275 from AZoM. No other page read this run printed Poisson''s ratio, so none was added.'
sources:
  upmet-316:
    title: 'United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)'
    id: 316-316l.pdf
    url: https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    year: 2026
    license: cited, not reproduced
  azom-316:
    title: 'AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)'
    id: ArticleID=863
    url: https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863
    kind: web
    license: AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)
  ati-316:
    title: 'ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel'
    id: ati-316
    url: https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  wiki-marine-316:
    title: 'Wikipedia: Marine grade stainless'
    id: Marine grade stainless
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_grade_stainless
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  nist-nbsir-80-1627:
    title: 'NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures'
    id: NBSIR 80-1627
    url: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 1980
    license: public domain
  epa-acta-316-aging:
    title: 'Dommankova et al. 2014: Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C'
    id: Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3)
    url: https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf
    kind: paper
    year: 2014
    license: open access (cited)
  usgs-nickel-2026:
    title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel'
    id: mcs2026-nickel
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 2026
    license: public domain
  usgs-chromium-2026:
    title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium'
    id: mcs2026-chromium
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 2026
    license: public domain
  usgs-molybdenum-2026:
    title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum'
    id: mcs2026-molybdenum
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 2026
    license: public domain
  pubchem-nickel:
    title: 'PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification'
    id: CID 935
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem terms (public)
  pubchem-chromium:
    title: 'PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification'
    id: CID 23976
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem terms (public)
  pubchem-molybdenum:
    title: 'PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification'
    id: CID 23932
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem terms (public)
  alleima-list:
    title: 'Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms (austenitic rows 6LR62 and 5R60)'
    id: list-of-alloys
    url: https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys
    kind: web
    license: cited, not reproduced
  outokumpu-standards:
    title: 'Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards (Tables 4, 5 and 19)'
    id: outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf
    url: https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  aalco-316-bar:
    title: 'Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet'
    id: Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx
    url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  carpenter-316:
    title: 'Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)'
    id: 316.pdf
    url: https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    year: 2025
    license: cited, not reproduced
  swiss-1-4436:
    title: 'Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000'
    id: w_4436engl.pdf
    url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    year: 2000
    license: cited, not reproduced
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-24'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 30
  unreachable: 1
  caveats: 2
  note: 'Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in this run: UPMET 316/316L datasheet, AZoM 316 article, ATI 316 product page, Wikipedia Marine grade stainless, NIST NBSIR 80-1627 Table I, the 2014 Acta Polytechnica Hungarica AISI 316 ageing paper, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 for nickel, chromium and molybdenum, and PubChem records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Composition uses the datasheet limits, with the Wikipedia table as a cross-check. Chromium mine production is printed in thousand metric tons (51,000 thousand t, about 51 million t gross weight); the 304 profile reads the same total as 51,000 t, which is a unit slip there. Ulbrich was blocked by a security check.'
story:
  recipe:
    line: Type 316 is an iron-based austenitic stainless steel. The datasheet composition for 316, not 316L, is 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel, 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and up to 0.08 percent carbon, with iron as the balance. Wikipedia prints the same ranges. The composition is given as limits, and ASTM A240 was not read directly.
    parts:
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share_note: balance (the rest)
        role: The matrix of the alloy, holding the austenite structure.
      - name: Chromium
        symbol: Cr
        share_percent: 16
        share_high: 18
        role: Forms the passive oxide film that gives corrosion resistance.
      - name: Nickel
        symbol: Ni
        share_percent: 10
        share_high: 14
        role: Stabilises the austenite structure.
      - name: Molybdenum
        symbol: Mo
        share_percent: 2
        share_high: 3
        role: Adds resistance to pitting and crevice attack (datasheet and Wikipedia), and strength at elevated temperature (datasheet).
      - name: Carbon
        symbol: C
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 0.08
        limit: maximum
        role: Kept low so that chromium carbide does not form at grain boundaries. The 316L grade caps it at 0.03 percent.
      - name: Manganese
        symbol: Mn
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 2
        limit: maximum
        role: Deoxidiser and austenite former in the melt.
      - name: Silicon
        symbol: Si
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 0.75
        limit: maximum
        role: Deoxidiser in the melt.
      - name: Phosphorus
        symbol: P
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 0.045
        limit: maximum
        role: Impurity held low.
      - name: Sulfur
        symbol: S
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 0.03
        limit: maximum
        role: Impurity held low.
      - name: Nitrogen
        symbol: 'N'
        share_percent: 0
        share_high: 0.1
        limit: maximum
        role: Held low; raises pitting resistance in higher-nitrogen grades.
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      level: 0
      verdict: Alloy not checked against an SDS
      lead: The PubChem records below are for elemental nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No 316 safety data sheet was read.
      points:
        - label: Nickel
          line: PubChem lists elemental nickel with H317, H351 and H372 in its aggregated notifications, with signal word Danger.
        - label: Chromium
          line: PubChem lists elemental chromium with H317, H319, H334 and H341 in notifications that disagree on signal word.
        - label: Molybdenum
          line: PubChem lists elemental molybdenum with H315, H319 and H335 in its notifications.
    - title: In the environment
      level: 1
      verdict: Chloride is the watch point
      lead: Pitting and crevice corrosion are the main failure routes in seawater service.
      points:
        - label: Seawater
          line: Wikipedia says 316 is the preferred steel for marine use but is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes, where crevice and pitting attack occur.
        - label: Near the sea
          line: Wikipedia says 316L is typically considered the minimum grade near the seashore.
    - title: Welding and heat
      level: 1
      verdict: Heat history sets the risk
      lead: Heating between 500 and 900 C is the fabrication risk; solution-annealed material avoided it in the EPA study.
      points:
        - label: Range
          line: The experimental 316 heat was susceptible to intergranular attack after heat treatment between 500 and 900 C, with the nose of the curve at 800 C.
        - label: Fix
          line: Use 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization, as Wikipedia describes for 316L.
  why: Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel. Its 2 to 3 percent molybdenum makes it more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, and it keeps more strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). Its limits are seawater crevices and heat history. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization.
  uses:
    - where: Aerospace structures
      line: The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part.
    - where: Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment
      line: Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants.
  can_do:
    - label: Strength
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
      line: ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa (ATI). AZoM gives 480 to 620 MPa across its table.
    - label: Yield
      benchmark: yield_strength
      line: Minimum yield is 205 MPa (ATI). NIST measured annealed 316 plate at 656 to 663 MPa at 4 K and 193 to 213 MPa at 295 K.
    - label: Stiffness
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      line: Elastic modulus is 200 GPa (datasheet) and 190 to 205 GPa (AZoM).
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
      line: Density is 8.027 g/cm3 (datasheet) and 7.87 to 8.07 Mg/m3 (AZoM).
  compare: Compared with 304, Type 316 adds 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and is more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion, according to the datasheet. Compared with 316L it has a higher carbon limit, 0.08 against 0.03 percent, and Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization. The EPA heat study shows the 500 to 900 C window as a sensitization risk.
  compare_rows:
    - scope: material
      label: Tensile strength
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    - scope: material
      label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - scope: material
      label: Melting range
      benchmark: melting_point
  handling:
    - Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels (datasheet).
    - Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated.
    - Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization (Wikipedia).
  good_for:
    - Chloride-bearing service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate.
    - Architectural, process and food-handling equipment, and the aerospace structures named in the uses section.
  watch_out:
    - Seawater condenser tubes and crevices, where Wikipedia says 316 is not suitable.
    - Heating between 500 and 900 C, which made the experimental heat susceptible to intergranular attack.
    - Strength values at cryogenic and elevated temperature come from one NIST plate heat only, and sheet or bar values at those temperatures were not found.
  verdict: Type 316 is the marine-grade choice among common austenitic steels. It keeps the forming ease of 304 and adds molybdenum for chloride resistance. Use 316L where sensitization must be avoided, and do not use 316 alone for seawater condenser tubes.