spore: profile id: stainless-316 spore_version: 0.2 family: stainless-austenitic name: Stainless steel 316 abbreviation: 316 (UNS S31600) role: structural alloy category: metals type: steels-and-stainless summary: | Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel, the second most common austenitic grade after 304 (Wikipedia). It is an iron alloy with 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel and 2 to 3 percent molybdenum (datasheet). The molybdenum gives it better general, pitting and crevice corrosion resistance than 304, and higher creep and tensile strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa and a minimum yield of 205 MPa (ATI). It is a separate grade from 316L, which caps carbon at 0.03 percent. best_for: Chloride-bearing and marine-grade service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate weakest_at: Crevice and pitting attack in seawater condenser tubes, intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C, and modest strength next to precipitation-hardened grades identity: formula: Fe balance, 16 to 18 Cr, 10 to 14 Ni, 2 to 3 Mo, max 0.08 C, 2 Mn, 0.75 Si, 0.045 P, 0.03 S, 0.10 N (wt%) source: upmet-316 where: Chemical composition table (first table, 316/316L) designations: - system: UNS code: S31600 source: alleima-list where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, rows 6LR62 and 5R60, UNS column - system: EN code: '1.4401' source: alleima-list where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 6LR62, EN steel no. column - system: EN code: '1.4436' source: alleima-list where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 5R60, EN steel no. column - system: EN name code: X3CrNiMo 17-13-3 source: swiss-1-4436 where: EN 10088-3 line for 1.4436, datasheet created 2000 - system: ASTM code: '316' source: alleima-list where: Billets and blooms list of alloys, ASTM column, rows 6LR62 and 5R60 - system: ASTM code: A240 source: outokumpu-standards where: Table 19 basic standards list for plate, sheet and strip, generic for stainless steel and not 316 specific - system: ASTM code: A276 source: carpenter-316 where: Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, shared with 316L - system: ASTM code: A182 source: carpenter-316 where: Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, grade suffix F316 not printed - system: BS code: 58H note: nearest equivalent source: aalco-316-bar where: Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent - system: JIS code: SUS 316 note: nearest equivalent source: outokumpu-standards where: Table 4, JIS column, 4401 row - system: ISO code: 4401-316-00-I note: nearest equivalent source: outokumpu-standards where: Table 5, ISO column, 4401 row - system: ISO code: 4436-316-00-I note: nearest equivalent source: outokumpu-standards where: Table 5, ISO column, 4436 row - system: BS code: 316S31 note: nearest equivalent source: aalco-316-bar where: Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent - system: BS code: 316S33 note: nearest equivalent source: outokumpu-standards where: Table 5, BS/UK column, 4436 row tags: environments: [] stresses: [] applications: - structures properties: - benchmark: density value: 8.027 unit: g/cm3 scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: not printed method: Physical properties table, printed as 0.29 lb/in3 (8.027 g/cm3) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Density row) - benchmark: density value: 7.87 value_high: 8.07 unit: Mg/m3 scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Density row) - benchmark: elastic_modulus value: 200 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: not printed method: Physical properties table, printed as 29 x 10^6 psi (200 GPa) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Elasticity in Tension row) - benchmark: elastic_modulus value: 190 value_high: 205 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Young's Modulus row) - benchmark: shear_modulus value: 82 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: not printed method: Physical properties table, printed as 11.9 x 10^6 psi (82 GPa) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Shear row) - benchmark: bulk_modulus value: 134 value_high: 152 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Bulk Modulus row) - benchmark: poissons_ratio value: 0.265 value_high: 0.275 unit: dimensionless scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Poisson's Ratio row) - benchmark: yield_strength value: 205 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed) temperature: not printed basis: 0.2 percent offset method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 30,000 psi (205 MPa) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Yield Strength 0.2 percent offset row) - benchmark: yield_strength value: 205 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240) temper: not named on the page temperature: not printed basis: minimum method: Product table, minimum as printed (30 ksi min) status: ground source: ati-316 where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Yield Strength row) - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength value: 515 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed) temperature: not printed method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 75,000 psi (515 MPa) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Ultimate Tensile Strength row) - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength value: 515 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240) temper: not named on the page temperature: not printed basis: minimum method: Product table, minimum as printed (75 ksi min) status: ground source: ati-316 where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Tensile Strength row) - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength value: 480 value_high: 620 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Tensile Strength row) - benchmark: elongation value: 40 unit: '%' scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: not printed gauge: 2 in or 51 mm method: Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Percent Elongation row) - benchmark: elongation value: 40 unit: '%' scope: material conditions: form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240) temper: not named on the page temperature: not printed basis: minimum method: Product table, minimum as printed (40% min) status: ground source: ati-316 where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Elongation row) - benchmark: hardness value: 217 unit: HB bound: upper scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: not printed basis: maximum method: Mechanical properties table, Hardness Max Brinell row status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Hardness, Max. Brinell row) - benchmark: hardness value: 95 unit: HRB bound: upper scope: material conditions: form: plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240) temper: not named on the page temperature: not printed basis: maximum method: Product table, maximum as printed (95 HRB max) status: ground source: ati-316 where: Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Hardness row) - benchmark: melting_point value: 1390 value_high: 1440 unit: °C scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: melting range method: Physical properties table, melting range as printed (2540 to 2630 F) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Melting Range row) - benchmark: melting_point value: 1648 value_high: 1673 unit: K scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: melting range method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Melting Point row) - benchmark: cte value: 16.5 unit: 10-6/K scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: 20 to 100 C mean unit_in_source: 10-6 cm/cm/°C method: Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 16.5 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 100 C row) - benchmark: cte value: 18.2 unit: 10-6/K scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: 20 to 500 C mean unit_in_source: 10-6 cm/cm/°C method: Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 18.2 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 500 C row) - benchmark: thermal_conductivity value: 14.6 unit: W/m.K scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: 20 to 100 C method: Thermal conductivity table, printed as W/m K status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Thermal Conductivity table (20 to 100 C row) - benchmark: thermal_conductivity value: 13 value_high: 17 unit: W/m.K scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Thermal Conductivity row) - benchmark: specific_heat value: 450 unit: J/kg.K scope: material conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648) temper: not printed in this row temperature: 20 C unit_in_source: J/kg °K method: Specific heat table, printed as J/kg °K at 20 C (450 J/kg °K at 93 C also printed) status: ground source: upmet-316 where: Specific Heat table (20 C row) - benchmark: specific_heat value: 490 value_high: 530 unit: J/kg.K scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Specific Heat row) - benchmark: electrical_resistivity value: 69 value_high: 81 unit: 10-8 ohm.m scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Resistivity row) - benchmark: fatigue_strength value: 256 value_high: 307 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: not stated basis: endurance limit as printed; test cycles and method not stated method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Endurance Limit row) - benchmark: max_service_temp value: 1023 value_high: 1198 unit: K scope: material conditions: form: not stated temper: not stated temperature: service limit as printed method: Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns) status: ground source: azom-316 where: Property table (Maximum Service Temperature row) - benchmark: yield_strength value: 656 value_high: 663 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: plate, 25.4 mm thick temper: annealed (Table I title) temperature: 4 K test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s method: Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, both 4 K rows as printed status: ground source: nist-nbsir-80-1627 where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (4 K rows) - benchmark: yield_strength value: 193 value_high: 213 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: plate, 25.4 mm thick temper: annealed (Table I title) temperature: 295 K test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s method: Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, three 295 K rows as printed status: ground source: nist-nbsir-80-1627 where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (295 K rows) - benchmark: yield_strength value: 102 unit: MPa scope: material conditions: form: plate, 25.4 mm thick temper: annealed (Table I title) temperature: 922 K test: 0.2 percent offset tensile yield method: Table I, 922 K row, footnote says the elevated-temperature data are from Sikka status: ground source: nist-nbsir-80-1627 where: Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (922 K row) corrosion: - environment: Seawater and marine service headline: 316 is the preferred steel for marine environments, but it is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes. effect: Wikipedia says 316 resists pitting better than most grades without molybdenum, and is the preferred steel for marine use. It also says 316 and 316L are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion in seawater condenser tubes, and that 316L is typically the minimum grade near the seashore. rating: moderate conditions: environment: seawater, near-seashore and condenser tube service temperature: not stated source: wiki-marine-316 where: Marine grade stainless article, sections on 316 and on seawater - environment: General corrosion in ordinary environments headline: More resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, per the datasheet. effect: The datasheet describes Type 316 as a molybdenum-bearing austenitic grade, more resistant to general corrosion and to pitting and crevice corrosion than chromium-nickel grades such as Type 304. It adds higher creep, stress-to-rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures. rating: low conditions: form: sheet, coil and bar temperature: not stated source: upmet-316 where: More about 316/316L text - environment: Heating between 500 and 900 C, sensitization headline: Heating between 500 and 900 C made the experimental 316 susceptible to intergranular attack. Its time-temperature curve has its nose at 800 C. effect: An experimental AISI 316 heat solution-annealed at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quenched was not susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Heat treatment from 500 to 900 C caused susceptibility in the ASTM A262 practice A test. M23C6 carbide formed at grain boundaries first, and further phases and M6C carbide appeared with longer holds. The nose of the time-temperature-sensitisation curve is at 800 C with a minimum time of 20 min, and 800 C for 10 min did not cause sensitisation. rating: moderate conditions: temperature: 500 to 900 C heat treatment time: 10 min to 1000 h (study range) test: ASTM A262 practice A heat: experimental AISI 316 steel source: epa-acta-316-aging where: Abstract; Conclusions 1 and 2; TTS diagram (Fig. 3) - environment: Ageing at 750 C headline: Secondary phases grow at grain boundaries as the ageing time at 750 C increases. effect: Micrographs of AISI 316 aged at 750 C for 10 min, 5 h, 300 h and 1000 h show few particles after 10 min and more precipitate at the boundaries with longer times. The paper plots the fraction of each secondary phase against ageing time at 750 C (Figure 13). Its corrosion effect at 750 C is not quantified in the abstract. rating: unknown conditions: temperature: 750 C time: 10 min to 1000 h heat: experimental AISI 316 steel source: epa-acta-316-aging where: Figures 4 to 13 (microstructures and secondary-phase fractions after ageing at 750 C) - environment: Sea water on the AZoM resistance scale headline: AZoM rates 316 at 5 of 5 for sea water, which conflicts with the Wikipedia warning for condenser tubes. effect: The AZoM resistance table rates Type 316 on a 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) scale, with sea water 5, fresh water 5, strong acid 5, weak acid 5, oxidation at 500 C 5, UV 5 and wear 4. The scale has no conditions and no crevice or pitting detail. rating: unknown conditions: scale: 1 poor to 5 excellent temperature: not stated source: azom-316 where: Environmental Properties, Resistance Factors table risks: hazards: - text: PubChem aggregated GHS notifications for elemental nickel include H317 (may cause an allergic skin reaction), H351 (suspected of causing cancer), H372 (causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure) and H412 (harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects), with signal word Danger in the notifications. These cover the element, not the 316 alloy. ghs: - H317 - H351 - H372 - H412 source: pubchem-nickel where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 935) - text: PubChem notifications for elemental chromium include H317, H319 (causes serious eye irritation), H334 (may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled) and H341 (suspected of causing genetic defects). Signal words differ between notifications, and the record is not a supplier classification. ghs: - H317 - H319 - H334 - H341 source: pubchem-chromium where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23976) - text: PubChem notifications for elemental molybdenum include H315 (causes skin irritation), H319 (causes serious eye irritation) and H335 (may cause respiratory irritation), with signal words Warning and Danger across notifications. ghs: - H315 - H319 - H335 source: pubchem-molybdenum where: UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23932) failure_risks: - mode: Chloride pitting and crevice corrosion in seawater trigger: Seawater or near-seashore chloride, especially in crevices and in condenser tubes consequence: Local attack that Wikipedia says 316 does not resist well enough for seawater condenser tubes; 316L is the usual minimum near the seashore severity: moderate source: wiki-marine-316 where: Marine grade stainless article, seawater and 316 sections - mode: Intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C trigger: Heating or holding in the 500 to 900 C range consequence: Grain-boundary carbide and secondary phases lower local corrosion resistance; the EPA study found the experimental heat susceptible after heat treatment in this range severity: high source: epa-acta-316-aging where: Abstract; Conclusions side_effects: [] handling: - text: Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels, according to the datasheet. source: upmet-316 where: More about 316/316L text - text: Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated. source: epa-acta-316-aging where: Abstract; Conclusions 1 - text: Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization and is preferred for medical implants. source: wiki-marine-316 where: Composition table (316L row) and uses text mitigations: - text: Use 316L for near-seashore service, where Wikipedia gives 316L as the typical minimum grade. source: wiki-marine-316 where: Marine grade stainless article, seashore section - text: Solution-anneal at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quench, the treatment that kept the experimental heat free of intergranular susceptibility. source: epa-acta-316-aging where: Abstract uses: - application: structures device: Aerospace structures example: The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part. source: upmet-316 where: Industry Applications list - application: structures device: Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment example: Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants. source: wiki-marine-316 where: Composition table (316 row, general grade uses column) supply: - subject: Nickel production by country abundance: World mine production 3.9 million t in 2025 (estimated); world reserves more than 140 million t, of which Indonesia holds 62 million t (USGS 2026). producers: - country: Indonesia share_percent: 66.7 year: 2025 basis: 2,600,000 t of 3,900,000 t mine production (estimated), computed from printed tonnage - country: Philippines share_percent: 6.9 year: 2025 basis: 270,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed - country: Russia share_percent: 5.1 year: 2025 basis: 200,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed - country: New Caledonia share_percent: 3.6 year: 2025 basis: 140,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed - country: Canada share_percent: 3.6 year: 2025 basis: 140,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed - country: China share_percent: 3.1 year: 2025 basis: 120,000 t of 3,900,000 t, computed critical_lists: [] recycling: In 2025 nickel recovered from scrap was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption, and most secondary nickel is stainless-steel scrap. substitutes: - Low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in construction - Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments source: usgs-nickel-2026 where: World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes - subject: Nickel use and US import reliance abundance: Stainless and alloy steel plus nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85 percent of US consumption. US net import reliance was 41 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated). producers: [] critical_lists: [] recycling: Recycled nickel was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025. substitutes: [] source: usgs-nickel-2026 where: Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics (net import reliance row) - subject: Chromium production by country abundance: World mine production about 51 million t gross weight in 2025 (estimated; printed as 51,000 thousand metric tons). World resources greater than 12 billion t of shipping-grade chromite, 95 percent in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026). producers: - country: South Africa share_percent: 45.1 year: 2025 basis: 23,000 of 51,000 thousand t gross weight (estimated), computed - country: Turkey share_percent: 17.6 year: 2025 basis: 9,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed - country: Kazakhstan share_percent: 13.7 year: 2025 basis: 7,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed - country: India share_percent: 5.9 year: 2025 basis: 3,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed - country: Brazil share_percent: 3.9 year: 2025 basis: 2,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed - country: Zimbabwe share_percent: 3.9 year: 2025 basis: 2,000 of 51,000 thousand t, computed critical_lists: [] recycling: Recycled chromium in stainless-steel scrap receipts was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025. substitutes: - Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use (USGS 2026) source: usgs-chromium-2026 where: World Mine Production and Reserves; World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling - subject: Chromium import reliance abundance: 'US net import reliance 79 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated). Chromite imports 2021 to 2024: South Africa 96 percent, Turkey 3 percent (USGS 2026).' producers: [] critical_lists: [] recycling: Recycled chromium was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025. substitutes: [] source: usgs-chromium-2026 where: Salient Statistics; Import Sources (2021-24) - subject: Molybdenum production by country abundance: World mine production 260,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated). China, Chile, the United States, Peru and Mexico account for 90 percent of world production (USGS 2026). China imposed export controls on molybdenum powders in February 2025. producers: - country: China share_percent: 37.3 year: 2025 basis: 97,000 t of 260,000 t mine production (estimated), computed - country: Chile share_percent: 16.2 year: 2025 basis: 42,000 t of 260,000 t, computed - country: United States share_percent: 15.4 year: 2025 basis: 40,000 t of 260,000 t, computed - country: Peru share_percent: 15 year: 2025 basis: 39,000 t of 260,000 t, computed - country: Mexico share_percent: 6.5 year: 2025 basis: 17,000 t of 260,000 t, computed critical_lists: [] recycling: Molybdenum in recycled steel, superalloy and catalyst scrap may be as much as 30 percent of apparent supply (USGS 2026). substitutes: - There is little substitution for molybdenum in steels; potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium and vanadium in alloy steels (USGS 2026) source: usgs-molybdenum-2026 where: World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes; Events, Trends, and Issues - subject: Molybdenum US position abundance: The United States is a net exporter of molybdenum (USGS 2026). US mine production was 40,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated). producers: [] critical_lists: [] recycling: '' substitutes: [] source: usgs-molybdenum-2026 where: Salient Statistics (net import reliance row, note E Net exporter); Domestic Production and Use - subject: Critical-mineral policy abundance: USGS 2026 notes Executive Order 14285 (April 2025), which calls for seabed mineral development to help secure supplies of critical minerals such as nickel. The text does not reproduce a critical-minerals list. producers: [] critical_lists: [] recycling: '' substitutes: [] source: usgs-nickel-2026 where: Events, Trends, and Issues media: [] documents: - title: 'United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)' type: datasheet url: https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf year: 2026 - title: 'ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel (UNS S31600, plate, sheet and strip product data)' type: datasheet url: https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316 - title: 'NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures (Table I, annealed AISI 316)' type: report url: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf year: 1980 - title: 'Dommankova et al. 2014: The Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C (Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3))' type: paper url: https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf year: 2014 - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel' type: report url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf year: 2026 - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium' type: report url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf year: 2026 - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum' type: report url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf year: 2026 - title: 'PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification' type: database url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON year: 2026 - title: 'PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification' type: database url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON year: 2026 - title: 'PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification' type: database url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON year: 2026 - title: 'Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms' type: datasheet url: https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys - title: 'Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards' type: datasheet url: https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf - title: 'Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet' type: datasheet url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx - title: 'Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)' type: datasheet url: https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf year: 2025 - title: 'Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000' type: datasheet url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf year: 2000 gaps: - No ASTM A240 page was read directly. Composition comes from the datasheet and the Wikipedia table. AZoM gives a different range for the same grade (Cr 16 to 18.5, C under 0.03) and was not used for composition. - The datasheet, AZoM and ATI mechanical values do not print a temper. ATI names ASTM A240 but no temper, so the annealed condition is confirmed only for the NIST plate in Table I. - Cryogenic and elevated-temperature yield values come from one NIST heat of annealed 25.4 mm plate in a 1980 report. No cryogenic values for 316 sheet or bar were found, and no 4 K tensile strength or elongation was read. - Hardness is not in the canonical property list, so the name hardness is used. The datasheet gives Brinell maximum and ATI gives Rockwell B maximum. - The datasheet electrical resistivity of 74.0 microhm-cm at 20 C was not added, because its unit string may not match the registry key microohmcm. Only the AZoM range is in the file. - The EU and USGS critical-mineral lists were not read, so critical_lists are empty. - Nickel, chromium and molybdenum shares are mine production only. Refinery and smelting shares were not read. - Hazard data are PubChem element records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No safety data sheet for 316 was read, and the GHS notifications are not a supplier classification. - No NASA or ESA source naming 316 in a spacecraft part was found. The uses come from the datasheet and Wikipedia, so the space link is not sourced. - A search result on 316L weld-metal toughness after 850 C ageing was seen but not read on a fetched page, so it is not used. - The Ulbrich 316 page was blocked by a security check. Its notes on cold-work magnetism and forming were not used. - The Outokumpu global standards PDF was read this run for designations only. Recycling and substitutes for 316 itself were not sourced beyond the nickel, chromium and molybdenum totals. - The EPA study used an experimental 316 heat, not a commercial bar or sheet, so its sensitization and ageing results are shown as the study findings only. - 'Designations: no page read this run printed ASTM A312 or the F316 grade suffix. Carpenter prints A182 without F316, so A182 is listed without it and A312 is not listed.' - 'Designations: the DIN steel name X5CrNiMo17-12-2 for 1.4401 was not printed on any page read this run, so the DIN entry is the number 1.4401 only.' - 'Designations left out: Outokumpu''s Supra 316/4401 page lists EN 1.4404 with 1.4401, but 1.4404 is 316L; Swiss Steel''s 1.4436 sheet prints BS 316 S13, which Outokumpu gives to 316L; AFNOR, SS, GB and KS names and AMS product specs were printed but sit outside the requested systems.' - 'Poisson''s ratio: the file already has 0.265 to 0.275 from AZoM. No other page read this run printed Poisson''s ratio, so none was added.' sources: upmet-316: title: 'United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)' id: 316-316l.pdf url: https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf kind: datasheet year: 2026 license: cited, not reproduced azom-316: title: 'AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)' id: ArticleID=863 url: https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863 kind: web license: AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced) ati-316: title: 'ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel' id: ati-316 url: https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316 kind: datasheet license: cited, not reproduced wiki-marine-316: title: 'Wikipedia: Marine grade stainless' id: Marine grade stainless url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_grade_stainless kind: web license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced) nist-nbsir-80-1627: title: 'NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures' id: NBSIR 80-1627 url: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf kind: report year: 1980 license: public domain epa-acta-316-aging: title: 'Dommankova et al. 2014: Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C' id: Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3) url: https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf kind: paper year: 2014 license: open access (cited) usgs-nickel-2026: title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel' id: mcs2026-nickel url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf kind: report year: 2026 license: public domain usgs-chromium-2026: title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium' id: mcs2026-chromium url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf kind: report year: 2026 license: public domain usgs-molybdenum-2026: title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum' id: mcs2026-molybdenum url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf kind: report year: 2026 license: public domain pubchem-nickel: title: 'PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification' id: CID 935 url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON kind: database license: PubChem terms (public) pubchem-chromium: title: 'PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification' id: CID 23976 url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON kind: database license: PubChem terms (public) pubchem-molybdenum: title: 'PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification' id: CID 23932 url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON kind: database license: PubChem terms (public) alleima-list: title: 'Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms (austenitic rows 6LR62 and 5R60)' id: list-of-alloys url: https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys kind: web license: cited, not reproduced outokumpu-standards: title: 'Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards (Tables 4, 5 and 19)' id: outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf url: https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf kind: datasheet license: cited, not reproduced aalco-316-bar: title: 'Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet' id: Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx kind: datasheet license: cited, not reproduced carpenter-316: title: 'Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)' id: 316.pdf url: https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf kind: datasheet year: 2025 license: cited, not reproduced swiss-1-4436: title: 'Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000' id: w_4436engl.pdf url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf kind: datasheet year: 2000 license: cited, not reproduced license: CC-BY-4.0 updated: '2026-10-24' review: status: draft method: assistant checked_values: 30 unreachable: 1 caveats: 2 note: 'Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in this run: UPMET 316/316L datasheet, AZoM 316 article, ATI 316 product page, Wikipedia Marine grade stainless, NIST NBSIR 80-1627 Table I, the 2014 Acta Polytechnica Hungarica AISI 316 ageing paper, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 for nickel, chromium and molybdenum, and PubChem records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Composition uses the datasheet limits, with the Wikipedia table as a cross-check. Chromium mine production is printed in thousand metric tons (51,000 thousand t, about 51 million t gross weight); the 304 profile reads the same total as 51,000 t, which is a unit slip there. Ulbrich was blocked by a security check.' story: recipe: line: Type 316 is an iron-based austenitic stainless steel. The datasheet composition for 316, not 316L, is 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel, 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and up to 0.08 percent carbon, with iron as the balance. Wikipedia prints the same ranges. The composition is given as limits, and ASTM A240 was not read directly. parts: - name: Iron symbol: Fe share_note: balance (the rest) role: The matrix of the alloy, holding the austenite structure. - name: Chromium symbol: Cr share_percent: 16 share_high: 18 role: Forms the passive oxide film that gives corrosion resistance. - name: Nickel symbol: Ni share_percent: 10 share_high: 14 role: Stabilises the austenite structure. - name: Molybdenum symbol: Mo share_percent: 2 share_high: 3 role: Adds resistance to pitting and crevice attack (datasheet and Wikipedia), and strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). - name: Carbon symbol: C share_percent: 0 share_high: 0.08 limit: maximum role: Kept low so that chromium carbide does not form at grain boundaries. The 316L grade caps it at 0.03 percent. - name: Manganese symbol: Mn share_percent: 0 share_high: 2 limit: maximum role: Deoxidiser and austenite former in the melt. - name: Silicon symbol: Si share_percent: 0 share_high: 0.75 limit: maximum role: Deoxidiser in the melt. - name: Phosphorus symbol: P share_percent: 0 share_high: 0.045 limit: maximum role: Impurity held low. - name: Sulfur symbol: S share_percent: 0 share_high: 0.03 limit: maximum role: Impurity held low. - name: Nitrogen symbol: 'N' share_percent: 0 share_high: 0.1 limit: maximum role: Held low; raises pitting resistance in higher-nitrogen grades. risk_groups: - title: For people level: 0 verdict: Alloy not checked against an SDS lead: The PubChem records below are for elemental nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No 316 safety data sheet was read. points: - label: Nickel line: PubChem lists elemental nickel with H317, H351 and H372 in its aggregated notifications, with signal word Danger. - label: Chromium line: PubChem lists elemental chromium with H317, H319, H334 and H341 in notifications that disagree on signal word. - label: Molybdenum line: PubChem lists elemental molybdenum with H315, H319 and H335 in its notifications. - title: In the environment level: 1 verdict: Chloride is the watch point lead: Pitting and crevice corrosion are the main failure routes in seawater service. points: - label: Seawater line: Wikipedia says 316 is the preferred steel for marine use but is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes, where crevice and pitting attack occur. - label: Near the sea line: Wikipedia says 316L is typically considered the minimum grade near the seashore. - title: Welding and heat level: 1 verdict: Heat history sets the risk lead: Heating between 500 and 900 C is the fabrication risk; solution-annealed material avoided it in the EPA study. points: - label: Range line: The experimental 316 heat was susceptible to intergranular attack after heat treatment between 500 and 900 C, with the nose of the curve at 800 C. - label: Fix line: Use 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization, as Wikipedia describes for 316L. why: Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel. Its 2 to 3 percent molybdenum makes it more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, and it keeps more strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). Its limits are seawater crevices and heat history. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization. uses: - where: Aerospace structures line: The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part. - where: Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment line: Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants. can_do: - label: Strength benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength line: ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa (ATI). AZoM gives 480 to 620 MPa across its table. - label: Yield benchmark: yield_strength line: Minimum yield is 205 MPa (ATI). NIST measured annealed 316 plate at 656 to 663 MPa at 4 K and 193 to 213 MPa at 295 K. - label: Stiffness benchmark: elastic_modulus line: Elastic modulus is 200 GPa (datasheet) and 190 to 205 GPa (AZoM). - label: Density benchmark: density line: Density is 8.027 g/cm3 (datasheet) and 7.87 to 8.07 Mg/m3 (AZoM). compare: Compared with 304, Type 316 adds 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and is more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion, according to the datasheet. Compared with 316L it has a higher carbon limit, 0.08 against 0.03 percent, and Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization. The EPA heat study shows the 500 to 900 C window as a sensitization risk. compare_rows: - scope: material label: Tensile strength benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength - scope: material label: Density benchmark: density - scope: material label: Melting range benchmark: melting_point handling: - Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels (datasheet). - Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated. - Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization (Wikipedia). good_for: - Chloride-bearing service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate. - Architectural, process and food-handling equipment, and the aerospace structures named in the uses section. watch_out: - Seawater condenser tubes and crevices, where Wikipedia says 316 is not suitable. - Heating between 500 and 900 C, which made the experimental heat susceptible to intergranular attack. - Strength values at cryogenic and elevated temperature come from one NIST plate heat only, and sheet or bar values at those temperatures were not found. verdict: Type 316 is the marine-grade choice among common austenitic steels. It keeps the forming ease of 304 and adds molybdenum for chloride resistance. Use 316L where sensitization must be avoided, and do not use 316 alone for seawater condenser tubes.