{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "stainless-316",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "stainless-austenitic",
  "name": "Stainless steel 316",
  "abbreviation": "316 (UNS S31600)",
  "role": "structural alloy",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel, the second most common austenitic grade after 304 (Wikipedia). It is an iron alloy with 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel and 2 to 3 percent molybdenum (datasheet). The molybdenum gives it better general, pitting and crevice corrosion resistance than 304, and higher creep and tensile strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa and a minimum yield of 205 MPa (ATI). It is a separate grade from 316L, which caps carbon at 0.03 percent.\n",
  "best_for": "Chloride-bearing and marine-grade service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate",
  "weakest_at": "Crevice and pitting attack in seawater condenser tubes, intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C, and modest strength next to precipitation-hardened grades",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Fe balance, 16 to 18 Cr, 10 to 14 Ni, 2 to 3 Mo, max 0.08 C, 2 Mn, 0.75 Si, 0.045 P, 0.03 S, 0.10 N (wt%)",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "S31600",
        "source": "alleima-list",
        "where": "Billets and blooms list of alloys, rows 6LR62 and 5R60, UNS column"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4401",
        "source": "alleima-list",
        "where": "Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 6LR62, EN steel no. column"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4436",
        "source": "alleima-list",
        "where": "Billets and blooms list of alloys, row 5R60, EN steel no. column"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X3CrNiMo 17-13-3",
        "source": "swiss-1-4436",
        "where": "EN 10088-3 line for 1.4436, datasheet created 2000"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "316",
        "source": "alleima-list",
        "where": "Billets and blooms list of alloys, ASTM column, rows 6LR62 and 5R60"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A240",
        "source": "outokumpu-standards",
        "where": "Table 19 basic standards list for plate, sheet and strip, generic for stainless steel and not 316 specific"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A276",
        "source": "carpenter-316",
        "where": "Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, shared with 316L"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A182",
        "source": "carpenter-316",
        "where": "Applicable designations line of the 316/316L data sheet, grade suffix F316 not printed"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "58H",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "aalco-316-bar",
        "where": "Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "SUS 316",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "outokumpu-standards",
        "where": "Table 4, JIS column, 4401 row"
      },
      {
        "system": "ISO",
        "code": "4401-316-00-I",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "outokumpu-standards",
        "where": "Table 5, ISO column, 4401 row"
      },
      {
        "system": "ISO",
        "code": "4436-316-00-I",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "outokumpu-standards",
        "where": "Table 5, ISO column, 4436 row"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "316S31",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "aalco-316-bar",
        "where": "Designations list for grade 1.4401/316, qualified as may not be a direct equivalent"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "316S33",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "outokumpu-standards",
        "where": "Table 5, BS/UK column, 4436 row"
      }
    ],
    "source": "upmet-316",
    "where": "Chemical composition table (first table, 316/316L)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 8.027,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "Physical properties table, printed as 0.29 lb/in3 (8.027 g/cm3)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Density row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 7.87,
      "value_high": 8.07,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Mg/m3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Density row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 200,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "Physical properties table, printed as 29 x 10^6 psi (200 GPa)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Elasticity in Tension row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 190,
      "value_high": 205,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Young's Modulus row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "shear_modulus",
      "value": 82,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "Physical properties table, printed as 11.9 x 10^6 psi (82 GPa)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Modulus of Shear row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "bulk_modulus",
      "value": 134,
      "value_high": 152,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Bulk Modulus row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "poissons_ratio",
      "value": 0.265,
      "value_high": 0.275,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "dimensionless",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Poisson's Ratio row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 205,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed)",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "0.2 percent offset"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 30,000 psi (205 MPa)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Yield Strength 0.2 percent offset row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 205,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)",
        "temper": "not named on the page",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "minimum"
      },
      "method": "Product table, minimum as printed (30 ksi min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316",
      "where": "Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Yield Strength row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel",
        "id": "ati-316",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 515,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row (magnetic row of the same datasheet is labelled annealed)",
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column, printed as 75,000 psi (515 MPa)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Ultimate Tensile Strength row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 515,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)",
        "temper": "not named on the page",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "minimum"
      },
      "method": "Product table, minimum as printed (75 ksi min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316",
      "where": "Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Tensile Strength row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel",
        "id": "ati-316",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 480,
      "value_high": 620,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Tensile Strength row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "gauge": "2 in or 51 mm"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, Type 316 (S31600) column",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Percent Elongation row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)",
        "temper": "not named on the page",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "minimum"
      },
      "method": "Product table, minimum as printed (40% min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316",
      "where": "Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Elongation row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel",
        "id": "ati-316",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness",
      "value": 217,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "maximum"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, Hardness Max Brinell row",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table (Hardness, Max. Brinell row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness",
      "value": 95,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HRB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet and strip (ASTM A240, ASME SA-240)",
        "temper": "not named on the page",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "maximum"
      },
      "method": "Product table, maximum as printed (95 HRB max)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316",
      "where": "Plate, Sheet and Strip product tables (Hardness row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel",
        "id": "ati-316",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "value": 1390,
      "value_high": 1440,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "melting range"
      },
      "method": "Physical properties table, melting range as printed (2540 to 2630 F)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table (Melting Range row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "value": 1648,
      "value_high": 1673,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "melting range"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Melting Point row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 16.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "20 to 100 C mean",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 cm/cm/°C"
      },
      "method": "Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 16.5 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 100 C row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 18.2,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "20 to 500 C mean",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 cm/cm/°C"
      },
      "method": "Linear coefficient of thermal expansion table, printed as 18.2 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C; cm/cm/°C is the same as 1/K",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table (20 to 500 C row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 14.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m.K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "20 to 100 C"
      },
      "method": "Thermal conductivity table, printed as W/m K",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Thermal Conductivity table (20 to 100 C row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 13,
      "value_high": 17,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m.K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Thermal Conductivity row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "value": 450,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/kg.K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar (datasheet product standards AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "temper": "not printed in this row",
        "temperature": "20 C",
        "unit_in_source": "J/kg °K"
      },
      "method": "Specific heat table, printed as J/kg °K at 20 C (450 J/kg °K at 93 C also printed)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Specific Heat table (20 C row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "316-316l.pdf",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "cited, not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "value": 490,
      "value_high": 530,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/kg.K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Specific Heat row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "value": 69,
      "value_high": 81,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-8 ohm.m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Resistivity row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "fatigue_strength",
      "value": 256,
      "value_high": 307,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "basis": "endurance limit as printed; test cycles and method not stated"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Endurance Limit row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "value": 1023,
      "value_high": 1198,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "temperature": "service limit as printed"
      },
      "method": "Property table, minimum and maximum as printed (S.I. columns)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Property table (Maximum Service Temperature row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
        "id": "ArticleID=863",
        "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 656,
      "value_high": 663,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, 25.4 mm thick",
        "temper": "annealed (Table I title)",
        "temperature": "4 K",
        "test": "0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s"
      },
      "method": "Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, both 4 K rows as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-nbsir-80-1627",
      "where": "Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (4 K rows)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures",
        "id": "NBSIR 80-1627",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf",
        "year": 1980,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "public domain"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 193,
      "value_high": 213,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, 25.4 mm thick",
        "temper": "annealed (Table I title)",
        "temperature": "295 K",
        "test": "0.2 percent offset tensile yield, strain rate 0.02 mm/s"
      },
      "method": "Table I, 0.2 percent yield stress, three 295 K rows as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-nbsir-80-1627",
      "where": "Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (295 K rows)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures",
        "id": "NBSIR 80-1627",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf",
        "year": 1980,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "public domain"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 102,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, 25.4 mm thick",
        "temper": "annealed (Table I title)",
        "temperature": "922 K",
        "test": "0.2 percent offset tensile yield"
      },
      "method": "Table I, 922 K row, footnote says the elevated-temperature data are from Sikka",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-nbsir-80-1627",
      "where": "Table I, Yield Stress vs. Temperature Data for Annealed AISI 316 (922 K row)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures",
        "id": "NBSIR 80-1627",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf",
        "year": 1980,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "public domain"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Seawater and marine service",
      "headline": "316 is the preferred steel for marine environments, but it is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes.",
      "effect": "Wikipedia says 316 resists pitting better than most grades without molybdenum, and is the preferred steel for marine use. It also says 316 and 316L are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion in seawater condenser tubes, and that 316L is typically the minimum grade near the seashore.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "environment": "seawater, near-seashore and condenser tube service",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "source": "wiki-marine-316",
      "where": "Marine grade stainless article, sections on 316 and on seawater"
    },
    {
      "environment": "General corrosion in ordinary environments",
      "headline": "More resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, per the datasheet.",
      "effect": "The datasheet describes Type 316 as a molybdenum-bearing austenitic grade, more resistant to general corrosion and to pitting and crevice corrosion than chromium-nickel grades such as Type 304. It adds higher creep, stress-to-rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "sheet, coil and bar",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "More about 316/316L text"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Heating between 500 and 900 C, sensitization",
      "headline": "Heating between 500 and 900 C made the experimental 316 susceptible to intergranular attack. Its time-temperature curve has its nose at 800 C.",
      "effect": "An experimental AISI 316 heat solution-annealed at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quenched was not susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Heat treatment from 500 to 900 C caused susceptibility in the ASTM A262 practice A test. M23C6 carbide formed at grain boundaries first, and further phases and M6C carbide appeared with longer holds. The nose of the time-temperature-sensitisation curve is at 800 C with a minimum time of 20 min, and 800 C for 10 min did not cause sensitisation.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "500 to 900 C heat treatment",
        "time": "10 min to 1000 h (study range)",
        "test": "ASTM A262 practice A",
        "heat": "experimental AISI 316 steel"
      },
      "source": "epa-acta-316-aging",
      "where": "Abstract; Conclusions 1 and 2; TTS diagram (Fig. 3)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Ageing at 750 C",
      "headline": "Secondary phases grow at grain boundaries as the ageing time at 750 C increases.",
      "effect": "Micrographs of AISI 316 aged at 750 C for 10 min, 5 h, 300 h and 1000 h show few particles after 10 min and more precipitate at the boundaries with longer times. The paper plots the fraction of each secondary phase against ageing time at 750 C (Figure 13). Its corrosion effect at 750 C is not quantified in the abstract.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "750 C",
        "time": "10 min to 1000 h",
        "heat": "experimental AISI 316 steel"
      },
      "source": "epa-acta-316-aging",
      "where": "Figures 4 to 13 (microstructures and secondary-phase fractions after ageing at 750 C)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Sea water on the AZoM resistance scale",
      "headline": "AZoM rates 316 at 5 of 5 for sea water, which conflicts with the Wikipedia warning for condenser tubes.",
      "effect": "The AZoM resistance table rates Type 316 on a 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) scale, with sea water 5, fresh water 5, strong acid 5, weak acid 5, oxidation at 500 C 5, UV 5 and wear 4. The scale has no conditions and no crevice or pitting detail.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "scale": "1 poor to 5 excellent",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "source": "azom-316",
      "where": "Environmental Properties, Resistance Factors table"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem aggregated GHS notifications for elemental nickel include H317 (may cause an allergic skin reaction), H351 (suspected of causing cancer), H372 (causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure) and H412 (harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects), with signal word Danger in the notifications. These cover the element, not the 316 alloy.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H351",
          "H372",
          "H412"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-nickel",
        "where": "UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 935)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem notifications for elemental chromium include H317, H319 (causes serious eye irritation), H334 (may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled) and H341 (suspected of causing genetic defects). Signal words differ between notifications, and the record is not a supplier classification.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H319",
          "H334",
          "H341"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-chromium",
        "where": "UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23976)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem notifications for elemental molybdenum include H315 (causes skin irritation), H319 (causes serious eye irritation) and H335 (may cause respiratory irritation), with signal words Warning and Danger across notifications.",
        "ghs": [
          "H315",
          "H319",
          "H335"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-molybdenum",
        "where": "UN GHS Classification (PubChem record, CID 23932)"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Chloride pitting and crevice corrosion in seawater",
        "trigger": "Seawater or near-seashore chloride, especially in crevices and in condenser tubes",
        "consequence": "Local attack that Wikipedia says 316 does not resist well enough for seawater condenser tubes; 316L is the usual minimum near the seashore",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "wiki-marine-316",
        "where": "Marine grade stainless article, seawater and 316 sections"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Intergranular attack after heating between 500 and 900 C",
        "trigger": "Heating or holding in the 500 to 900 C range",
        "consequence": "Grain-boundary carbide and secondary phases lower local corrosion resistance; the EPA study found the experimental heat susceptible after heat treatment in this range",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "epa-acta-316-aging",
        "where": "Abstract; Conclusions"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels, according to the datasheet.",
        "source": "upmet-316",
        "where": "More about 316/316L text"
      },
      {
        "text": "Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated.",
        "source": "epa-acta-316-aging",
        "where": "Abstract; Conclusions 1"
      },
      {
        "text": "Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization and is preferred for medical implants.",
        "source": "wiki-marine-316",
        "where": "Composition table (316L row) and uses text"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Use 316L for near-seashore service, where Wikipedia gives 316L as the typical minimum grade.",
        "source": "wiki-marine-316",
        "where": "Marine grade stainless article, seashore section"
      },
      {
        "text": "Solution-anneal at 1100 C for 1 h and water-quench, the treatment that kept the experimental heat free of intergranular susceptibility.",
        "source": "epa-acta-316-aging",
        "where": "Abstract"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Aerospace structures",
      "example": "The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part.",
      "source": "upmet-316",
      "where": "Industry Applications list"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment",
      "example": "Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants.",
      "source": "wiki-marine-316",
      "where": "Composition table (316 row, general grade uses column)"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Nickel production by country",
      "abundance": "World mine production 3.9 million t in 2025 (estimated); world reserves more than 140 million t, of which Indonesia holds 62 million t (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "New Caledonia",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 3.1,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "In 2025 nickel recovered from scrap was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption, and most secondary nickel is stainless-steel scrap.",
      "substitutes": [
        "Low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in construction",
        "Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Nickel use and US import reliance",
      "abundance": "Stainless and alloy steel plus nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85 percent of US consumption. US net import reliance was 41 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled nickel was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics (net import reliance row)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium production by country",
      "abundance": "World mine production about 51 million t gross weight in 2025 (estimated; printed as 51,000 thousand metric tons). World resources greater than 12 billion t of shipping-grade chromite, 95 percent in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 17.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 13.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "share_percent": 5.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Zimbabwe",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium in stainless-steel scrap receipts was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [
        "Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use (USGS 2026)"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-chromium-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves; World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium import reliance",
      "abundance": "US net import reliance 79 percent of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated). Chromite imports 2021 to 2024: South Africa 96 percent, Turkey 3 percent (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium was 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-chromium-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics; Import Sources (2021-24)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Molybdenum production by country",
      "abundance": "World mine production 260,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated). China, Chile, the United States, Peru and Mexico account for 90 percent of world production (USGS 2026). China imposed export controls on molybdenum powders in February 2025.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 37.3,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Chile",
          "share_percent": 16.2,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "United States",
          "share_percent": 15.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "share_percent": 15,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Mexico",
          "share_percent": 6.5,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Molybdenum in recycled steel, superalloy and catalyst scrap may be as much as 30 percent of apparent supply (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "There is little substitution for molybdenum in steels; potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium and vanadium in alloy steels (USGS 2026)"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-molybdenum-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves; Recycling; Substitutes; Events, Trends, and Issues"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Molybdenum US position",
      "abundance": "The United States is a net exporter of molybdenum (USGS 2026). US mine production was 40,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025 (estimated).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-molybdenum-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics (net import reliance row, note E Net exporter); Domestic Production and Use"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Critical-mineral policy",
      "abundance": "USGS 2026 notes Executive Order 14285 (April 2025), which calls for seabed mineral development to help secure supplies of critical minerals such as nickel. The text does not reproduce a critical-minerals list.",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel (UNS S31600, plate, sheet and strip product data)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316"
    },
    {
      "title": "NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures (Table I, annealed AISI 316)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf",
      "year": 1980
    },
    {
      "title": "Dommankova et al. 2014: The Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C (Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3))",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf",
      "year": 2014
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys"
    },
    {
      "title": "Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx"
    },
    {
      "title": "Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf",
      "year": 2000
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No ASTM A240 page was read directly. Composition comes from the datasheet and the Wikipedia table. AZoM gives a different range for the same grade (Cr 16 to 18.5, C under 0.03) and was not used for composition.",
    "The datasheet, AZoM and ATI mechanical values do not print a temper. ATI names ASTM A240 but no temper, so the annealed condition is confirmed only for the NIST plate in Table I.",
    "Cryogenic and elevated-temperature yield values come from one NIST heat of annealed 25.4 mm plate in a 1980 report. No cryogenic values for 316 sheet or bar were found, and no 4 K tensile strength or elongation was read.",
    "Hardness is not in the canonical property list, so the name hardness is used. The datasheet gives Brinell maximum and ATI gives Rockwell B maximum.",
    "The datasheet electrical resistivity of 74.0 microhm-cm at 20 C was not added, because its unit string may not match the registry key microohmcm. Only the AZoM range is in the file.",
    "The EU and USGS critical-mineral lists were not read, so critical_lists are empty.",
    "Nickel, chromium and molybdenum shares are mine production only. Refinery and smelting shares were not read.",
    "Hazard data are PubChem element records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No safety data sheet for 316 was read, and the GHS notifications are not a supplier classification.",
    "No NASA or ESA source naming 316 in a spacecraft part was found. The uses come from the datasheet and Wikipedia, so the space link is not sourced.",
    "A search result on 316L weld-metal toughness after 850 C ageing was seen but not read on a fetched page, so it is not used.",
    "The Ulbrich 316 page was blocked by a security check. Its notes on cold-work magnetism and forming were not used.",
    "The Outokumpu global standards PDF was read this run for designations only. Recycling and substitutes for 316 itself were not sourced beyond the nickel, chromium and molybdenum totals.",
    "The EPA study used an experimental 316 heat, not a commercial bar or sheet, so its sensitization and ageing results are shown as the study findings only.",
    "Designations: no page read this run printed ASTM A312 or the F316 grade suffix. Carpenter prints A182 without F316, so A182 is listed without it and A312 is not listed.",
    "Designations: the DIN steel name X5CrNiMo17-12-2 for 1.4401 was not printed on any page read this run, so the DIN entry is the number 1.4401 only.",
    "Designations left out: Outokumpu's Supra 316/4401 page lists EN 1.4404 with 1.4401, but 1.4404 is 316L; Swiss Steel's 1.4436 sheet prints BS 316 S13, which Outokumpu gives to 316L; AFNOR, SS, GB and KS names and AMS product specs were printed but sit outside the requested systems.",
    "Poisson's ratio: the file already has 0.265 to 0.275 from AZoM. No other page read this run printed Poisson's ratio, so none was added."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Type 316 is the molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steel. Its 2 to 3 percent molybdenum makes it more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion than 304, and it keeps more strength at elevated temperature (datasheet). Its limits are seawater crevices and heat history. Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Aerospace structures",
        "line": "The datasheet lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L. It does not name a spacecraft part."
      },
      {
        "where": "Chemical storage, food processing and oil refining equipment",
        "line": "Wikipedia lists 316 as a general grade for food processing, chemical storage and transport, textile dyeing equipment, oil refining equipment, and some medical implants."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "ASTM A240 plate, sheet and strip have a minimum tensile strength of 515 MPa (ATI). AZoM gives 480 to 620 MPa across its table.",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Yield",
        "line": "Minimum yield is 205 MPa (ATI). NIST measured annealed 316 plate at 656 to 663 MPa at 4 K and 193 to 213 MPa at 295 K.",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "Elastic modulus is 200 GPa (datasheet) and 190 to 205 GPa (AZoM).",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "Density is 8.027 g/cm3 (datasheet) and 7.87 to 8.07 Mg/m3 (AZoM).",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Compared with 304, Type 316 adds 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and is more resistant to general, pitting and crevice corrosion, according to the datasheet. Compared with 316L it has a higher carbon limit, 0.08 against 0.03 percent, and Wikipedia describes 316L as the low-carbon grade that resists sensitization. The EPA heat study shows the 500 to 900 C window as a sensitization risk.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Tensile strength",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Melting range",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Fabricability and formability are typical of austenitic stainless steels (datasheet).",
      "Solution-annealed material was not susceptible in the EPA study, so specify it for parts that will be heated.",
      "Specify 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization (Wikipedia)."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Chloride-bearing service where 304 would pit, in annealed sheet, bar and plate.",
      "Architectural, process and food-handling equipment, and the aerospace structures named in the uses section."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Seawater condenser tubes and crevices, where Wikipedia says 316 is not suitable.",
      "Heating between 500 and 900 C, which made the experimental heat susceptible to intergranular attack.",
      "Strength values at cryogenic and elevated temperature come from one NIST plate heat only, and sheet or bar values at those temperatures were not found."
    ],
    "verdict": "Type 316 is the marine-grade choice among common austenitic steels. It keeps the forming ease of 304 and adds molybdenum for chloride resistance. Use 316L where sensitization must be avoided, and do not use 316 alone for seawater condenser tubes.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Type 316 is an iron-based austenitic stainless steel. The datasheet composition for 316, not 316L, is 16 to 18 percent chromium, 10 to 14 percent nickel, 2 to 3 percent molybdenum and up to 0.08 percent carbon, with iron as the balance. Wikipedia prints the same ranges. The composition is given as limits, and ASTM A240 was not read directly.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The matrix of the alloy, holding the austenite structure.",
          "share_note": "balance (the rest)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Forms the passive oxide film that gives corrosion resistance.",
          "share_percent": 16,
          "share_high": 18
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Stabilises the austenite structure.",
          "share_percent": 10,
          "share_high": 14
        },
        {
          "name": "Molybdenum",
          "symbol": "Mo",
          "role": "Adds resistance to pitting and crevice attack (datasheet and Wikipedia), and strength at elevated temperature (datasheet).",
          "share_percent": 2,
          "share_high": 3
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Kept low so that chromium carbide does not form at grain boundaries. The 316L grade caps it at 0.03 percent.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.08
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Deoxidiser and austenite former in the melt.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 2
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Deoxidiser in the melt.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.75
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Impurity held low.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.045
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulfur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "Impurity held low.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        },
        {
          "name": "Nitrogen",
          "symbol": "N",
          "role": "Held low; raises pitting resistance in higher-nitrogen grades.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.1
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The PubChem records below are for elemental nickel, chromium and molybdenum. No 316 safety data sheet was read.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Nickel",
            "line": "PubChem lists elemental nickel with H317, H351 and H372 in its aggregated notifications, with signal word Danger."
          },
          {
            "label": "Chromium",
            "line": "PubChem lists elemental chromium with H317, H319, H334 and H341 in notifications that disagree on signal word."
          },
          {
            "label": "Molybdenum",
            "line": "PubChem lists elemental molybdenum with H315, H319 and H335 in its notifications."
          }
        ],
        "level": 0,
        "verdict": "Alloy not checked against an SDS"
      },
      {
        "title": "In the environment",
        "lead": "Pitting and crevice corrosion are the main failure routes in seawater service.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Seawater",
            "line": "Wikipedia says 316 is the preferred steel for marine use but is not suitable for seawater condenser tubes, where crevice and pitting attack occur."
          },
          {
            "label": "Near the sea",
            "line": "Wikipedia says 316L is typically considered the minimum grade near the seashore."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Chloride is the watch point"
      },
      {
        "title": "Welding and heat",
        "lead": "Heating between 500 and 900 C is the fabrication risk; solution-annealed material avoided it in the EPA study.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Range",
            "line": "The experimental 316 heat was susceptible to intergranular attack after heat treatment between 500 and 900 C, with the nose of the curve at 800 C."
          },
          {
            "label": "Fix",
            "line": "Use 316L, carbon 0.03 percent maximum, where parts must resist sensitization, as Wikipedia describes for 316L."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Heat history sets the risk"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-24",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 30,
    "unreachable": 1,
    "caveats": 2,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in this run: UPMET 316/316L datasheet, AZoM 316 article, ATI 316 product page, Wikipedia Marine grade stainless, NIST NBSIR 80-1627 Table I, the 2014 Acta Polytechnica Hungarica AISI 316 ageing paper, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 for nickel, chromium and molybdenum, and PubChem records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Composition uses the datasheet limits, with the Wikipedia table as a cross-check. Chromium mine production is printed in thousand metric tons (51,000 thousand t, about 51 million t gross weight); the 304 profile reads the same total as 51,000 t, which is a unit slip there. Ulbrich was blocked by a security check."
  },
  "sources": {
    "upmet-316": {
      "title": "United Performance Metals: Datasheet for 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
      "id": "316-316l.pdf",
      "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "azom-316": {
      "title": "AZoM: Properties: Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)",
      "id": "ArticleID=863",
      "url": "https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=863",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "AZoM terms (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "ati-316": {
      "title": "ATI: 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel",
      "id": "ati-316",
      "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "wiki-marine-316": {
      "title": "Wikipedia: Marine grade stainless",
      "id": "Marine grade stainless",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_grade_stainless",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "nist-nbsir-80-1627": {
      "title": "NBSIR 80-1627: Materials Studies for Magnetic Fusion Energy Applications at Low Temperatures",
      "id": "NBSIR 80-1627",
      "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nbsir80-1627.pdf",
      "year": 1980,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain"
    },
    "epa-acta-316-aging": {
      "title": "Dommankova et al. 2014: Microstructure Evolution and Its Effect on Corrosion Properties of 18Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo Steel Annealed at 500-900 C",
      "id": "Acta Polytechnica Hungarica 11(3)",
      "url": "https://epa.hu/02400/02461/00049/pdf/EPA02461_acta_polytechnica_hungarica_2014_03_08.pdf",
      "year": 2014,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "open access (cited)"
    },
    "usgs-nickel-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "id": "mcs2026-nickel",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain"
    },
    "usgs-chromium-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "id": "mcs2026-chromium",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain"
    },
    "usgs-molybdenum-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum",
      "id": "mcs2026-molybdenum",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain"
    },
    "pubchem-nickel": {
      "title": "PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), UN GHS classification",
      "id": "CID 935",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/935/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-chromium": {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), UN GHS classification",
      "id": "CID 23976",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-molybdenum": {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), UN GHS classification",
      "id": "CID 23932",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "alleima-list": {
      "title": "Alleima: List of alloys for billets and blooms (austenitic rows 6LR62 and 5R60)",
      "id": "list-of-alloys",
      "url": "https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "outokumpu-standards": {
      "title": "Outokumpu: Steel Grades, Properties and Global Standards (Tables 4, 5 and 19)",
      "id": "outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf",
      "url": "https://www.outokumpu.com/-/media/from-sharepoint/documents/product/outokumpu-steel-grades-properties-global-standards.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "aalco-316-bar": {
      "title": "Aalco: Stainless Steel Austenitic 1.4401 (316) Bar and Section datasheet",
      "id": "Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14401-316-Bar-and-Section_37.ashx",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "carpenter-316": {
      "title": "Carpenter Technology: 316/316L data sheet (v 08-25)",
      "id": "316.pdf",
      "url": "https://www.carpentertechnology.com/hubfs/7407324/Material%20Saftey%20Data%20Sheets/316.pdf",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    },
    "swiss-1-4436": {
      "title": "Swiss Steel Group: Data sheet for 1.4436 (X3CrNiMo 17-13-3), created 2000",
      "id": "w_4436engl.pdf",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/w_4436engl.pdf",
      "year": 2000,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "cited, not reproduced"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/stainless-316/"
}