Lithium

lithium

13 materials across 4 types

About lithium

Lithium metal and the materials that make lithium-ion cells work, compared side by side.

Lithium is the lightest metal, which is why it sits at the center of modern batteries. "Lithium" in a battery can mean the metal itself, or one of several host materials that store lithium ions: cathodes such as LFP, NMC, LCO and NCA, and anodes such as graphite and LTO.

They differ a lot. Some store more energy, some resist heat better, some need scarce metals, and some corrode or fail in different ways. This collection lists them together with the same benchmarks, so they can be compared.

Material values describe the active material itself. Cell values describe a finished cell, which varies by manufacturer, so they are labeled and shown separately.

At a glance

Highest theoretical capacity: Lithium metal reaches 3,860 mAh/g. Lowest: Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) starts at 170 mAh/g. (9 of 13 grades have a sourced value.)
Highest measured capacity: NCA reaches 200 mAh/g. Lowest: Lithium titanate (LTO) starts at 70 mAh/g. (5 of 13 grades have a sourced value.)
Highest average voltage: NCA reaches 4.3 V vs Li/Li+. Lowest: Lithium titanate (LTO) starts at 1.55 V vs Li/Li+. (5 of 13 grades have a sourced value.)

Ranges run across the conditions each source reports (temper, heat treatment, form), measured at room temperature where the source says so.

How they compare

The same measurements for every material in the collection. A range means the grade has values under several conditions; "at least" means the source gives a specified minimum. "no data" means no sourced value yet. For ranked tables, open a benchmark.

Lithium: how the grades compare
Material	Theoretical capacity	Measured capacity	Average voltage	Density	Thermal runaway onset	Cycle lifefinished cell
Lithium metalanode	3,860 mAh/g	no data	no data	0.53 g/cm³	61.5 °C	at least 350 cycles
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)cathode	170 mAh/g	164 mAh/g	3.4 V vs Li/Li+	0.8 to 1.5 g/cm³	210 to 250 degC	275 to 6,000 cycles
NMCcathode	275 mAh/g	162.8 mAh/g	no data	no data	91 °C	300 cycles
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)cathode	274 mAh/g	140 mAh/g	3.9 to 4.2 V vs Li/Li+	4.2 g/cm³	111.8 °C	at least 3,441 cycles
NCAcathode	278 mAh/g	200 mAh/g	3.6 to 4.3 V vs Li/Li+	no data	250 °C	500 to 1,500 cycles
Graphiteanode	372 mAh/g	no data	no data	1.9 to 2.3 g/cm³	80 to 160 °C	no data
Lithium titanate (LTO)anode	175 mAh/g	70 to 140 mAh/g	1.55 V vs Li/Li+	no data	125 °C	20,000 to 30,000 cycles
Lithium nickel oxide (LNO)cathode	250 to 275 mAh/g	no data	4 V vs Li/Li+	3.3 g/cm³	no data	69.2 % retained
LMOcathode	285 mAh/g	123 mAh/g	no data	no data	no data	no data
LLZOsolid electrolyte	no data	no data	no data	5.09 g/cm³	no data	no data
LiPF6conducting salt (electrolyte)	no data	no data	no data	1.5 g/cm³	no data	no data
Ethylene carbonate (EC)high-permittivity electrolyte solvent and SEI former	no data	no data	no data	1.32 g/cm³	no data	no data
Propylene carbonate (PC)electrolyte solvent	no data	no data	no data	1.2 g/cm³	no data	no data

What these materials are made of

Composition by weight, as printed in the sources for each grade (the first constituents listed).

Composition of each grade
Material	Main constituents
Lithium metal	Li 100.0%
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)	Li 4.4% · Fe 35.4% · P 19.6% · O 40.6%
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)	Li 7.1% · Co 60.2% · O 32.7%
NCA	Li 7.2% · Ni 48.9% · Co 9.2% · Al 1.4% · O 33.3%
Lithium titanate (LTO)	Li 6.0% · Ti 52.1% · O 41.8%
Lithium nickel oxide (LNO)	Li 7.1% · Ni 60.1% · O 32.8%
LMO	Li 3.8% · Mn 60.8% · O 35.4%
LLZO	Li 5.8% · La 49.6% · Zr 21.7% · O 22.9%
LiPF6	Li 4.6% · P 20.4% · F 75.0%
Ethylene carbonate (EC)	C 40.9% · H 4.6% · O 54.5%
Propylene carbonate (PC)	C 47.1% · H 5.9% · O 47.0%

Where they are used

Uses
Use	Grades
Primary Li/SO2 battery of an atmospheric entry probe	Lithium metal
Primary Li/SO2 batteries of a lander	Lithium metal
Primary lithium-thionyl chloride battery of a Mars rover	Lithium metal
Electric vehicle batteries	Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)
Stationary battery storage	Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)
Portable Life Support System battery for an advanced lunar surface spacesuit (ground evaluation, not flown)	Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)
Cathode in lithium-ion cells for electric vehicles	NMC
Cathode in lithium-ion cells for mobile devices	NMC
International Space Station main power battery	Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)
NASA science spacecraft batteries (large and small cells)	Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)
Small-cell 18650 spacecraft battery	Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)
Mars lander and rover batteries (NASA)	NCA
Rover and lander power	NCA
Electric-vehicle cells	NCA
ISS main lithium-ion battery cells	Graphite
Lithium-ion anode in electric-vehicle batteries	Graphite

When each grade fits

Best use and weak spots of each grade
Material	Best for	Weakest at
Lithium metal	Highest charge per gram and lowest potential of any anode; primary cells that sit dormant for years before use.	Safe recharging (dendrites, short circuits, thermal runaway) and any contact with water or humid air.
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP)	Fast-recharging cells where heat tolerance matters more than energy per kilogram (NASA called the cathode inherently safer)	Low specific energy and energy density compared with typical lithium-ion cells (NASA), and very low electronic conductivity
NMC	High capacity per gram, with the Ni-rich versions giving the most	Heat tolerance: charged NMC releases oxygen, and nickel-rich versions cycle stably only to lower voltage limits
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)	Compact, proven cells with a flat voltage near 3.9 V and a long flight record	Using more than half its lithium, and thermal runaway heat once a cell is abused
NCA	High specific capacity and energy from a layered oxide with less cobalt than LCO	Thermal stability of the charged cathode, moisture sensitivity and cycle life at high nickel content
Graphite	Mature, low-cost anode with high capacity per gram at a low lithiation voltage.	Fast or cold charging (lithium plating) and heating (its protective film starts to break down at about 90 to 120 C).
Lithium titanate (LTO)	Very long cycle life and fast charge, with no lithium plating and almost no size change.	Lower cell energy (high voltage, low capacity per gram) and gas generation with swelling in cells.
Lithium nickel oxide (LNO)	High theoretical capacity from a cobalt-free layered oxide, and the model material for nickel-rich cathodes	Cycling stability and thermal stability, caused by nickel sitting in lithium sites and by a damaging phase change at high charge
LMO	Cobalt-free, low-cost cathodes where a manganese spinel is blended with a layered oxide (a 2024 lab study tested this blend)	Capacity fade: manganese dissolution, cracking and an irreversible phase change in the cathode (sources in corrosion and failure risks)
LLZO	Solid electrolytes for lithium-metal batteries that need a stiff, non-flammable oxide that is stable against lithium	Low ionic conductivity compared with liquid electrolytes, moisture sensitivity, and high density
LiPF6	A conductive, widely used salt for carbonate electrolytes (10.8 to 12.9 mS/cm for a 1.0 M solution at 20 to 30 degC)	Heat and moisture: it decomposes from about 380 K dry, earlier with water, and gives off toxic HF
Ethylene carbonate (EC)	Dissolving lithium salt (dielectric constant 89.78 at 40 degC) and building a protective film on graphite, which propylene carbonate does not do	Cold temperatures: it melts at 36.4 degC, so EC-rich electrolytes need co-solvents to stay liquid and conductive at -20 degC and below
Propylene carbonate (PC)	A liquid over a very wide range (-48.8 to 241.6 degC) with a dielectric constant of 65.50 at 25 degC	Graphite anodes, where PC-rich electrolytes gave a 60% first-cycle irreversible capacity and graphite exfoliation in one test