Refractory metals and carbides

refractory-metals

22 materials across 2 types

About refractory metals and carbides

Tungsten, tantalum and tungsten carbide: high-temperature and wear data with sources.

Refractory metals melt at very high temperatures and keep their strength when hot. Cemented tungsten carbide gets its hardness from tungsten carbide grains in a cobalt binder; its properties depend on the cobalt content and grain size.

At a glance

Highest yield strength: Zirconium alloys (Zr alloys) reaches 998 MPa. Lowest: Hafnium (Hf) starts at 151 MPa. (12 of 22 grades have a sourced value.)
Highest tensile strength: Zirconium alloys (Zr alloys) reaches 1,069 MPa. Lowest: Mo-30W starts at 170 MPa. (14 of 22 grades have a sourced value.)
Highest density: Rhenium (Re) reaches 21 g/cm³. Lowest: Beryllium starts at 1.85 g/cm³. (22 of 22 grades have a sourced value.)

Ranges run across the conditions each source reports (temper, heat treatment, form), measured at room temperature where the source says so.

How they compare

The same measurements for every material in the collection. A range means the grade has values under several conditions; "at least" means the source gives a specified minimum. "no data" means no sourced value yet. For ranked tables, open a benchmark.

Refractory metals and carbides: how the grades compare
Material	Yield strength	Tensile strength	Density	Young's modulus	Thermal conductivity	Melting point
Tungsten (W)refractory metal	no data	no data	19.3 g/cm³	411 GPa	174 W/(m·K)	3,422 °C
Tungsten carbide (WC)wear-resistant hard phase, held together by a cobalt binder	no data	no data	14.4 to 15.6 g/cm³	530 to 700 GPa	110 W/(m·K)	no data
Tantalumdense refractory metal (radiation spot shielding, capacitor anodes)	no data	no data	16.6 g/cm³	no data	57 W/(m·K)	3,017 °C
Hafnium (Hf)nuclear control rod material and superalloy additive	at least 151 MPa	at least 400 MPa	13.1 to 13.3 g/cm³	137 GPa	23 W/(m·K)	2,233 °C
Molybdenumrefractory structural and alloying metal	265 MPa	411 MPa	10.2 g/cm³	no data	142 W/(m·K)	2,623 °C
Mo-Reductile refractory alloy for space reactor cladding and structures, and for high-temperature thermoelements	557 MPa	719 MPa	14.6 g/cm³	no data	no data	at least 2,610 °C
Mo-30Whigh-temperature molybdenum-tungsten alloy for furnace hot zones, crucibles, zinc-bath heaters and sputtering targets	no data	170 to 385 MPa	10.9 to 11.2 g/cm³	no data	no data	2,829 °C
TZM molybdenum alloyhigh-temperature molybdenum alloy for furnace and hot-tool parts	750 to 900 MPa	800 to 1,000 MPa	10.2 g/cm³	300 GPa	130 W/(m·K)	no data
Niobium (Nb)refractory metal for high-temperature rocket nozzles, steel microalloying and superconducting wire	276 MPa	386 MPa	8.58 to 8.86 g/cm³	90 to 105 GPa	53.7 W/(m·K)	2,350 to 2,477 °C
Niobium alloys (Nb alloys)refractory niobium alloys for rocket and thruster nozzles, load-free thermal shields and alkali-metal containment	276 MPa	386 MPa	8.57 to 8.85 g/cm³	90 GPa	38.1 to 44.7 W/(m·K)	2,350 to 2,410 °C
Rhenium (Re)high-temperature structural metal for thruster chambers and superalloys	200 to 500 MPa	400 to 700 MPa	21 g/cm³	460 GPa	48 W/(m·K)	3,186 °C
Tungsten-rhenium alloys (W-Re)refractory alloy for high-temperature thermocouples, X-ray target tracks and nuclear-space design studies	no data	200 to 220 x 10^3 psi	19.3 to 19.7 g/cm³	no data	no data	3,120 to 3,350 °C
Tungsten heavy alloy (WHA)dense radiation shield, counterweight and mass material	517 MPa	689 to 758 MPa	16.9 to 18.9 g/cm³	330 to 385 GPa	no data	no data
Tungsten-copper (W-Cu)heat sink and electrical contact composite	no data	620 to 689 MPa	14.5 to 15.5 g/cm³	280 GPa	180 to 235 W/(m·K)	no data
Silver-tungsten (W-Ag)electrical contact and electrode composite	no data	no data	11.8 to 16.1 g/cm³	no data	no data	no data
Thoriated tungsten (WT20)TIG welding electrode and cathode material	no data	no data	11.7 g/cm³	411 GPa	174 W/(m·K)	3,422 °C
Vanadiumrefractory metal used mainly as an alloying element in steel and aerospace titanium alloys, and as the electrolyte element of vanadium redox flow batteries	no data	no data	6.11 g/cm³	128 GPa	30.7 W/(m·K)	1,900 to 1,910 °C
Vanadium alloys (V alloys)fusion first-wall and blanket structural alloys, and vanadium-based hydrogen-permeation membranes	402 MPa	488 MPa	6.05 g/cm³	126 GPa	no data	1,900 °C
Zirconium and Zircaloy (Zr)corrosion-resistant structural metal and nuclear cladding alloy	207 to 506 MPa	379 to 615 MPa	6.51 to 6.64 g/cm³	94.7 to 99.3 GPa	21.5 W/(m·K)	1,840 to 1,852 °C
Zirconium alloys (Zr alloys)corrosion-resistant structural alloys for nuclear fuel cladding, reactor pressure tubes and chemical-process equipment	468 to 998 MPa	515 to 1,069 MPa	6.55 g/cm³	99.3 GPa	21.5 W/(m·K)	1,850 °C
Titanium hydride (TiH2)hydrogen reservoir, foaming agent and neutron moderator (titanium, zirconium and hafnium hydrides)	no data	no data	3.78 to 11.4 g/cm³	no data	no data	at least 400 °C
Berylliumstructural and optical metal	at least 207 MPa	at least 290 MPa	1.85 g/cm³	290 GPa	216 W/(m·K)	1,287 °C

What these materials are made of

Composition by weight, as printed in the sources for each grade (the first constituents listed).

Composition of each grade
Material	Main constituents
Tungsten (W)	W 100.0%
Tungsten carbide (WC)	WC 90 to 94% · Co 6 to 10%
Tantalum	Ta 100.0%
Hafnium (Hf)	Hf 100.0%
Molybdenum	Mo 100.0%
Mo-Re	Mo 59% · Re 41%
Mo-30W	Mo balance · W 28 to 32%
TZM molybdenum alloy	Mo balance · Ti 0.5% · Zr 0.08% · C 0.01 to 0.04%
Rhenium (Re)	Re 100.0%
Vanadium alloys (V alloys)	V balance
Zirconium and Zircaloy (Zr)	Sn 1.2 to 1.7% · Fe 0.18 to 0.24% · Cr 0.07 to 0.13%
Zirconium alloys (Zr alloys)	Zr 95% · Sn 1.2 to 1.7% · Fe 0.18 to 0.24% · Cr 0.07 to 0.13% · Nb 2.4 to 2.8%
Titanium hydride (TiH2)	Ti 15.0% · Zr 28.5% · Hf 55.8% · H 0.6%
Beryllium	Be 99.2% · BeO 0.9% · C 0.09% · Fe 0.08% · Al 0.05%

Where they are used

Uses
Use	Grades
Rocket nozzle throat inserts	Tungsten (W)
Gamma shield near a space nuclear reactor	Tungsten (W)
Heavy-alloy counterweights and vibration damping	Tungsten (W)
Metal-machining cutting tools	Tungsten carbide (WC)
Mining drill bits and rock drilling tools	Tungsten carbide (WC)
Wear parts for tunnel boring, road construction and agriculture	Tungsten carbide (WC)
Spot shield on spacecraft electronics vault	Tantalum
Tantalum capacitor anode	Tantalum
Spot shield (NIST attenuation context)	Tantalum
Control rods in nuclear reactors	Hafnium (Hf)
Nickel-based superalloys for hot-end parts of jet engines	Hafnium (Hf)
Liquid-rocket thruster nozzles (C103 alloy)	Hafnium (Hf)
Alloying agent in steel, cast iron and superalloys	Molybdenum
Conductive metal layers in thin-film transistors	Molybdenum
Resistance elements in electric furnaces	Molybdenum
Fuel cladding and core structural material for spacecraft reactors	Mo-Re

When each grade fits

Best use and weak spots of each grade
Material	Best for	Weakest at
Tungsten (W)	Very high temperature parts, dense counterweights and gamma shielding where weight per unit of shielding matters more than cost	Brittle and hard to form or machine; oxidises in air when hot, so it needs protection above room temperature
Tungsten carbide (WC)	Cutting and wear parts where hardness matters most (less cobalt, fine grain), and mining drill bits and crusher parts, which Hyperion's mining table lists in 6 percent cobalt grades	Toughness: Hyperion ties high toughness to 10 to 20 percent binder and high hardness to sub-micron grains with 3 to 15 percent binder. The dust carries a cobalt and hardmetal health hazard and a rare fire risk (Sandvik SDS).
Tantalum	Dense, high-melting spot shielding in thin sheet, such as the approximately 1 mm tantalum vault plate on NASA's Europa Clipper	Mass: the 16650 kg/m3 density makes it heavy for large areas, and the vault plate is only a local shield, not a full enclosure
Hafnium (Hf)	Absorbing neutrons in reactor control rods (104 barns thermal neutron cross-section) and strengthening nickel superalloys (ATI)	Fine powder and chips, which ignite in air (ATI, ESPI), and strength that depends strongly on oxygen, nitrogen and carbon pickup (ATI)
Molybdenum	High-temperature strength and heat conduction: 2623 °C melting point and 142 W/(m·K) thermal conductivity at 20 °C, in vacuum or inert service	Oxidation in air above about 400 °C, where it forms volatile MoO3, and toughness at room temperature in as-rolled sheet (ductile-brittle transition above 25 °C in the NASA study)
Mo-Re	Structural and cladding use at high temperature in vacuum or inert gas, for example fuel cladding and core structures in space reactors, where ductility must survive welding	Oxidation in air above about 600 °C, and embrittlement by the sigma phase in Mo-47.5Re and by irradiation above about 1100 K
Mo-30W	Refractory parts that must hold shape at high temperature in vacuum or inert furnaces, where the 2829 °C melting point and the 10.9 g/cm3 sintered minimum density are the reference figures	Strength falls off above about 1500 °C in the powder-metallurgy bar tested by Wang et al., and the zinc-bath factory test found aluminium in the bath attacks the alloy
TZM molybdenum alloy	High-temperature strength in vacuum and inert furnaces: recrystallisation at 1400 °C and a reference yield strength of 750 to 900 MPa, against 1100 °C for pure molybdenum	Oxygen and water vapour. TZM loses ductility at 500 ppm oxygen and is embrittled within hours at 1150 °C in low-pressure oxygen (ORNL-5431), so it is kept below 825 °C in oxidising service
Niobium (Nb)	Hot structures that must hold stress above 1000 °C: C-103 keeps a minimum yield strength of 124 MPa at 1093 °C in vacuum (Smiths datasheet, minimum values)	Oxidation in air: niobium begins to oxidise at 200 °C, and unprotected C-103 needs a coating above 800 °C. C103 is expensive because of its hafnium content (NASA Glenn), and the USGS reports 100 % net import reliance for the United States.
Niobium alloys (Nb alloys)	Hot load-bearing nozzles: C-103 keeps a minimum yield strength of 124 MPa at 1093 °C in vacuum (Smiths datasheet, minimum values)	Oxidation in air: all three need a protective coating above about 400 °C (Wikipedia). Niobium supply is concentrated in Brazil, which mines about 93 % of world niobium (USGS 2026).
Rhenium (Re)	Structures that must hold strength above 2000 °C: iridium-coated rhenium thrust chambers tested up to about 2200 °C	Oxidation in air or oxygen-rich gas above about 300 °C, which makes uncoated rhenium unusable without a protective coating
Tungsten-rhenium alloys (W-Re)	High-temperature thermocouples and X-ray target tracks, used in reducing, inert or vacuum conditions where pure tungsten is too brittle	Rapid oxidation at high temperature in air or other oxidising gas (the data sheet says not recommended there)
Tungsten heavy alloy (WHA)	Dense, stiff parts that must absorb X-rays and gamma rays, or sit as counterweights in a small volume (density 16.85 to 18.85 g/cc across ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4)	Ductility falls as tungsten rises: minimum elongation is 2 % in class 4. The binder contains nickel, a hazardous substance. No vacuum or flight result was found.
Tungsten-copper (W-Cu)	Heat sinks and electrical contacts: a thermal conductivity of 235 W/(m·K) at 20 °C with a low thermal expansion of 8.3 ppm/K in the Plansee WCu20 grade	Heavy, and it oxidises in hot air: density 15.15 g/cm3 for W80Cu20, and strong oxidation in air beginning around 400 °C
Silver-tungsten (W-Ag)	Electrical contacts for switchgear, relays and circuit breakers (uses listed by Goodfellow)	Tarnish in sulfur-containing air, and few sourced numbers: no thermal, flight or vacuum data for the composite was found in a readable source
Thoriated tungsten (WT20)	Direct-current TIG welding with constant-current transformer power sources (EWS)	Radioactive oxide content: the thorium needs dust control when the tip is ground, and the electrode is handled as a radioactive material
Vanadium	Alloying steel and aerospace titanium: no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys (USGS 2026)	Fire and oxidation: fine powder is pyrophoric and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C in air, and the oxide V2O5 is toxic (Goodfellow)
Vanadium alloys (V alloys)	Fusion first-wall and blanket structures that must carry load at high temperature with low activation (Argonne)	Oxygen and hydrogen pickup: the alloy embrittles after exposure to oxygen at 500 to 700 C, and vanadium-based membranes are highly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement
Zirconium and Zircaloy (Zr)	Corrosion resistance in acids, especially hot nitric acid: 0.0 mpy for Zr 702 in 65 % nitric acid at 204 °C (ATI nitric acid sheet, Table 1)	Dry powder fire risk, delayed hydride cracking of Zircaloy cladding, and loss of strength when hot (Zr 702 yield 97.2 MPa at 316 °C)
Zirconium alloys (Zr alloys)	Nuclear fuel cladding and reactor pressure tubes, where low thermal neutron absorption (0.22 barns for Zircaloy-4) and corrosion resistance in water and steam both matter (ATI reactor-grade sheet)	Hydride embrittlement: hydrogen from water oxidation forms hydrides that blister and crack the cladding (Wikipedia), and hot hydrochloric acid still attacks Zircaloy-4 at 0.36 mm/a
Titanium hydride (TiH2)	Hydrogen reservoirs and foaming agents for metal powder processing (Albemarle grade N and the KTU aluminium foam paper), and zirconium hydride as a moderator with a high moderating ratio (ORNL Table 1)	Hydrogen loss on heating: TiH2 releases hydrogen from about 763 K, ZrH2 evolves hydrogen above 300 °C (ATI), and all three powders are flammable with a dust-explosion risk
Beryllium	Stiff, light structures and mirrors that must hold their shape when cold: 290 GPa modulus at 1.85 g/cm3 in the pure S-65 grade	Toxicity: inhaled dust or fume causes chronic beryllium disease, and the metal is hard and brittle with 3.0 % minimum elongation