Graphene Graphene
C (single sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice · hexagonal lattice
Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice, one atom thick.
Evidence level
2 of 5
Lab-measured
- 0Predicted only. No one has made it, or no measurement exists.
- 1Calculated. Only calculated or predicted values from sources.
- 2Lab-measured. Measured properties with their conditions stated.
- 3Space-relevant tests. Measured in conditions relevant to space, such as vacuum or atomic oxygen.
- 4Ground-qualified. Qualified for an application on the ground.
- 5Flown or field-proven. Flight or field results exist.
Heat conduction
2000 to 5000 W/mK
Stiffness
0.5 TPa
Carrier mobility
> 15000 cm²/(V.s)
Recipe, share of the weight
- C 100.0%Carbon
Best for
Ideal single-layer mechanics and electronics, where a very high carrier mobility or stiffness per unit mass is the goal
Weakest at
Commercial material properties were not verified in this run, so real nanoplatelet performance is not established here
Risk at a glance
- People Low. Handle as a precaution
- If it fails No data. No failure risks recorded
- Corrosion No data. No corrosion data recorded
Quick facts: Graphene
| Property | Value | Basis |
|---|---|---|
| Thermal conductivity | 160 to 5,000 W/(m·K) | 3 sourced values across conditions |
What is the thermal conductivity of Graphene?
Graphene has a thermal conductivity of 160 to 5,000 W/(m·K). The range covers 3 sourced values across the tempers, forms and test conditions the sources report; room-temperature values are used where a source states a temperature.
What is Graphene used for?
Uses recorded in the sources include Heat spreader on AlGaN/GaN transistors; Heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips; Heat spreaders in silicon-on-insulator circuits.
Why it exists
Graphene is a single sheet of carbon one atom thick. The manufacturer page and the editorial review give very high carrier mobility and stiffness for the ideal single layer. Commercial nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets, and their real properties depend on layer count and lateral size, which were not verified in this run.
Where it's used
Electronics heat spreading
Experiments placed few-layer graphene films on AlGaN/GaN transistors to spread heat from the hot spot. The review also reports simulations for silicon-on-insulator circuits.
Thermal test chips
CVD graphene grown on copper has been tested as a heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips.
Recipe
C (single sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice; nanoplatelets are stacked sheets)
Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms, each bonded to three neighbours in a hexagonal lattice with carbon-carbon bonds of 0.142 nm. Few-layer graphene and nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets. Made by mechanical exfoliation of graphite, by chemical vapour deposition of methane on copper foil, or by oxidising graphite to graphene oxide and then reducing it.
| Ingredient | Atoms per unit | Share of the weight | What it does |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon C | 1 | 100.0% | The only element. Each atom bonds to three neighbours in the plane, and the bonds set the strength and stiffness of the sheet. |
Weight shares are calculated from standard atomic weights.
What it can do
Heat conduction
2000 to 5000 W/mK
measured
Suspended graphene flakes conduct heat at 2000 to 5000 W/mK at room temperature. On a SiO2/Si substrate the cited value falls to about 600 W/mK, and encased single-layer graphene is cited at about 160 W/mK.
Stiffness
0.5 TPa
measured
Ideal single-layer graphene is reported at 1 TPa (editorial review) and 0.5 TPa (manufacturer page). The two sources disagree, so treat the stiffness as a range until a primary measurement is read.
Carrier mobility
> 15000 cm²/(V.s)
measured
The manufacturer page gives a theoretical electron mobility limit of 200000 cm2/(V.s) for a single layer, and 40000 cm2/(V.s) with a SiO2 substrate. These are limits, not measured values for a commercial product.
How it compares
Ideal single-layer graphene combines a very high theoretical electron mobility with a stiffness near 1 TPa. Commercial nanoplatelets were not read in this run, so this profile does not compare them with other carbon materials.
The same measurements for each material, so you can compare them. Each row names the key condition under the value; the full conditions and methods are in the numbered notes under Technical details. Other materials are shown beside it; each was measured under its own conditions, so open its page before comparing closely. Compare every grade in the family.
| Measurement | Graphene | GO, rGO |
|---|---|---|
| Thermal behavior and safety | ||
| Thermal conductivity, suspended graphene flakes (optothermal) | 2000 to 5000 W/mK7 | < 10 W/(m·K) |
| Thermal conductivity, graphene on SiO2/SiValue cited in the review from Seol et al. | 600 W/mK8 | < 10 W/(m·K) |
| Thermal conductivity, single-layer graphene encased in SiO2 | 160 W/mK9 | < 10 W/(m·K) |
| Physical and electrical | ||
| Atomic thickness of one graphene layerValue printed on the Graphenea properties page | 0.345 nm | no data |
| Areal density of a graphene sheetPrinted on the Graphenea properties page | 0.77 mg/m2 | no data |
| Other measurements | ||
| Theoretical electron mobility limit, single-layer graphene | 2×10^5 cm²/(V.s)1 | no data |
| Mobility limit with SiO2 substrateLimit printed on the Graphenea properties page | 40000 cm²/(V.s) | no data |
| Electron mobility previously reportedPrinted on the Graphenea properties page | > 15000 cm²/(V.s)2 | no data |
| Young's modulus, single-layer graphene (manufacturer page)Printed on the Graphenea properties page | 0.5 TPa3 | no data |
| Young's modulus, graphene (editorial review) | 1 TPa4 | no data |
| Intrinsic tensile strength, ideal graphene | 130 GPa5 | 30 to 50 GPa |
| Intrinsic strength, graphene (editorial review) | 130 GPa6 | 30 to 50 GPa |
| White-light absorption by one layerPrinted on the Graphenea properties page | 2.3 % | no data |
| Spring constant, graphene membrane (AFM)Printed on the Graphenea properties page | 1 to 5 N/m | no data |
| Carbon-carbon bond length in grapheneValue printed on the Graphenea properties page | 0.142 nm | no data |
Why choose it, and why not
Good for
- Ideal single-layer electronics and mechanics, where the theoretical limits matter. The numbers here are not measurements on a commercial product.
Watch out for
- Only ideal single-layer values are included. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not verified and should not be assumed.
- The two stiffness sources disagree, 0.5 TPa against 1 TPa.
- Thermal conduction drops sharply once the sheet is supported on a substrate, so suspended values do not describe a device.
Graphene has very high ideal single-layer values on the sources read here. For a commercial nanoplatelet choice, the product datasheet has to be read first.
Technical details
For scientists and researchers. Everything above comes from the record below: every number with its method, its conditions and its source.
Notes
The method, full conditions and any caveat for the numbered rows above.
| # | Measurement | Method | Conditions | Caveat |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Theoretical electron mobility limit, single-layer graphene | Theoretical limit printed on the Graphenea properties page | basis theoretical limit for an ideal single layer, as printed; sample and temperature not givensubstrate none stated | — |
| 2 | Electron mobility previously reported | — | basis previously reported value, as printed (above 15,000); sample and temperature not stated | Experimental lower bound from the page; the page gives no sample or temperature, so it is not comparable with the theoretical limit. |
| 3 | Young's modulus, single-layer graphene (manufacturer page) | — | basis ideal single layer, as printed; test method not stated | Differs from the 1 TPa given in the editorial review below; the two sources do not agree. |
| 4 | Young's modulus, graphene (editorial review) | Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial | basis no conditions stated; the review does not say single-layer explicitly | Second source value; see the Graphenea entry for the 0.5 TPa figure. |
| 5 | Intrinsic tensile strength, ideal graphene | Printed on the Graphenea properties page; the same 130 GPa figure appears in the editorial review | basis intrinsic (ideal, defect-free) strength; test conditions not stated in the source | — |
| 6 | Intrinsic strength, graphene (editorial review) | Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial | basis no conditions stated | — |
| 7 | Thermal conductivity, suspended graphene flakes (optothermal) | Range given in the review, citing optothermal Raman measurements by Balandin and co-workers | basis room temperature, suspended large-area graphene flakes; range as stated in the review; single-layer not separatedsubstrate none (suspended) | — |
| 8 | Thermal conductivity, graphene on SiO2/Si | — | basis near room temperature, in-plane, as cited in the reviewsubstrate SiO2/Si | Supported graphene conducts less heat than suspended graphene because of coupling to the substrate. |
| 9 | Thermal conductivity, single-layer graphene encased in SiO2 | Value cited in the review for encased single-layer graphene | basis single-layer graphene encased in oxide, at 310 Ktemperature 310 Ksubstrate SiO2 encased | — |
Corrosion and compatibility
What happens when it meets other materials and environments.
| Environment | Concern | What happens |
|---|---|---|
| Supported on SiO2/Si substrate | not rated | Heat conduction falls when graphene sits on a substrate1 |
| Encased in SiO2 oxide | not rated | Encasing lowers heat conduction further2 |
| # | Environment | Details | Test conditions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Supported on SiO2/Si substrate | Thermal conductivity of graphene on SiO2/Si is cited near 600 W/mK at room temperature, against 2000 to 5000 W/mK for suspended flakes. The review ascribes the drop to thermal coupling to the substrate and to scattering at substrate defects and impurities. | — |
| 2 | Encased in SiO2 oxide | Single-layer graphene encased in oxide is cited at about 160 W/mK at 310 K, the lowest of the substrate and encasement values cited here. | — |
Risks and side effects
Hazards to people, what happens when a cell overheats, and how the material is handled and stored.
For people
No exposure limit is set for graphene, and the UK HSE treats nanomaterials as substances of high concern.
- Inhalation
- Dust should be kept out of the air with local exhaust ventilation. Inhalation, skin contact and ingestion are all routes of exposure, and the skin and ingestion effects are little studied.
Test details
The original wording and numbers from the sources, for readers who want them.
Failure risks
| Failure | Trigger and consequence |
|---|---|
| When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below | When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below the suspended-flake values. A design that relies on the suspended value will under-predict temperatures. |
Handling and storage
- Keep dust-generating work inside local exhaust ventilation. The HSE guidance asks for enclosure of the process where possible, and LEV for cutting, sawing and polishing operations.
- Weigh powders over a damp sheet of absorbent material and wipe spills with a damp sheet, rather than dry sweeping.
- Wear suitable single-use gloves and a lab coat that does not retain dust.
Mitigations
- Use a risk management programme in the workplace to reduce exposure, and keep records of LEV checks and tests.
Supply and geography
How common the raw materials are and where they come from.
Natural graphite (feedstock for graphene and nanoplatelets)
USGS reports world reserves of 310,000,000 tons, of which China holds 100,000,000 tons; the rest of the world resources are said to exceed 800 million tons of recoverable graphite.
- Top producers (2025)
- China 82%
Natural graphite imports to the United States
US net import reliance for natural graphite is 100 percent.
- Top producers (2024)
- China (2021 to 2024 import share) 46%, Canada 13%, Mozambique 13%, Mexico 12%
Documents
Datasheets, safety data sheets, papers and standards you can open.
Full record
The complete spore, as stored. Free to reuse under CC-BY-4.0. Images keep the licence shown with each one.
Show the full YAML
spore: profile
id: graphene
spore_version: 0.2
family: carbon-materials
name: Graphene
abbreviation: Graphene
role: 2D carbon sheet (single-layer and few-layer), also sold as graphene nanoplatelets
category: carbon
type: Graphene
summary: |
Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice, one atom thick. Few-layer graphene and graphene nanoplatelets are stacks of a few to many such sheets. The ideal single-layer values quoted here (mobility, strength, stiffness, optical absorption) come from a manufacturer's properties page and an editorial review. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not read in this run and are not included.
best_for: Ideal single-layer mechanics and electronics, where a very high carrier mobility or stiffness per unit mass is the goal
weakest_at: Commercial material properties were not verified in this run, so real nanoplatelet performance is not established here
identity:
formula: C (single sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice; nanoplatelets are stacked sheets)
cas: ''
crystal_system: hexagonal lattice (two-dimensional)
space_group: ''
source: graphenea
where: Graphene Structure section (atomic thickness 0.345 nm); C-C bond length in Mechanical Strength section
tags:
environments: []
stresses: []
applications:
- thermal-control
- electronics-and-chips
properties:
- benchmark: thickness
label: Atomic thickness of one graphene layer
value: 0.345
unit: nm
scope: material
conditions:
basis: single atomic layer, as printed on the manufacturer's properties page
method: Value printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Graphene Structure section
- benchmark: electron_mobility
label: Theoretical electron mobility limit, single-layer graphene
value: 200000
unit: cm2/(V.s)
scope: material
conditions:
basis: theoretical limit for an ideal single layer, as printed; sample and temperature not given
substrate: none stated
method: Theoretical limit printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: calculated
source: graphenea
where: Electronic Properties section, 'Theoretical mobility limit'
- benchmark: electron_mobility
label: Mobility limit with SiO2 substrate
value: 40000
unit: cm2/(V.s)
scope: material
conditions:
basis: mobility limit for graphene on a SiO2 substrate, as printed
substrate: SiO2
method: Limit printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: calculated
source: graphenea
where: Electronic Properties section
- benchmark: electron_mobility
label: Electron mobility previously reported
value: 15000
bound: lower
unit: cm2/(V.s)
scope: material
conditions:
basis: previously reported value, as printed (above 15,000); sample and temperature not stated
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
note: Experimental lower bound from the page; the page gives no sample or temperature, so it is not comparable with the theoretical limit.
source: graphenea
where: Electronic Properties section
- benchmark: young_modulus
label: Young's modulus, single-layer graphene (manufacturer page)
value: 0.5
unit: TPa
scope: material
conditions:
basis: ideal single layer, as printed; test method not stated
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
note: Differs from the 1 TPa given in the editorial review below; the two sources do not agree.
source: graphenea
where: Mechanical Strength section
- benchmark: young_modulus
label: Young's modulus, graphene (editorial review)
value: 1
unit: TPa
scope: material
conditions:
basis: no conditions stated; the review does not say single-layer explicitly
method: Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial
status: ground
note: Second source value; see the Graphenea entry for the 0.5 TPa figure.
source: rhee2020
where: Opening paragraph
- benchmark: intrinsic_strength
label: Intrinsic tensile strength, ideal graphene
value: 130
unit: GPa
scope: material
conditions:
basis: intrinsic (ideal, defect-free) strength; test conditions not stated in the source
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page; the same 130 GPa figure appears in the editorial review
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Mechanical Strength section, 'Ultimate tensile strength'
- benchmark: intrinsic_strength
label: Intrinsic strength, graphene (editorial review)
value: 130
unit: GPa
scope: material
conditions:
basis: no conditions stated
method: Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial
status: ground
source: rhee2020
where: Opening paragraph
- benchmark: optical_absorption
label: White-light absorption by one layer
value: 2.3
unit: '%'
scope: material
conditions:
basis: one layer of graphene, white light, as printed
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Optical Properties section
- benchmark: spring_constant
label: Spring constant, graphene membrane (AFM)
value: 1
value_high: 5
bound: range
unit: N/m
scope: material
conditions:
basis: range printed on the Graphenea page; test geometry not stated
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Mechanical Strength section
- benchmark: areal_density
label: Areal density of a graphene sheet
value: 0.77
unit: mg/m2
scope: material
conditions:
basis: single sheet, as printed
method: Printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Mechanical Strength section
- benchmark: bond_length
label: Carbon-carbon bond length in graphene
value: 0.142
unit: nm
scope: material
conditions:
basis: in-plane C-C bond, as printed
method: Value printed on the Graphenea properties page
status: ground
source: graphenea
where: Mechanical Strength section
- benchmark: thermal_conductivity
label: Thermal conductivity, suspended graphene flakes (optothermal)
value: 2000
value_high: 5000
bound: range
unit: W/mK
scope: material
conditions:
basis: room temperature, suspended large-area graphene flakes; range as stated in the review; single-layer not separated
substrate: none (suspended)
method: Range given in the review, citing optothermal Raman measurements by Balandin and co-workers
status: ground
source: yan2015
where: Introduction, paragraph on thermal properties of graphene
- benchmark: thermal_conductivity
label: Thermal conductivity, graphene on SiO2/Si
value: 600
unit: W/mK
scope: material
conditions:
basis: near room temperature, in-plane, as cited in the review
substrate: SiO2/Si
method: Value cited in the review from Seol et al.
status: ground
note: Supported graphene conducts less heat than suspended graphene because of coupling to the substrate.
source: yan2015
where: Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene
- benchmark: thermal_conductivity
label: Thermal conductivity, single-layer graphene encased in SiO2
value: 160
unit: W/mK
scope: material
conditions:
basis: single-layer graphene encased in oxide, at 310 K
temperature: 310 K
substrate: SiO2 encased
method: Value cited in the review for encased single-layer graphene
status: ground
source: nika2012
where: Section on encased graphene (encased single-layer graphene paragraph)
corrosion:
- environment: Supported on SiO2/Si substrate
headline: Heat conduction falls when graphene sits on a substrate
effect: Thermal conductivity of graphene on SiO2/Si is cited near 600 W/mK at room temperature, against 2000 to 5000 W/mK for suspended flakes. The review ascribes the drop to thermal coupling to the substrate and to scattering at substrate defects and impurities.
source: yan2015
where: Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene
- environment: Encased in SiO2 oxide
headline: Encasing lowers heat conduction further
effect: Single-layer graphene encased in oxide is cited at about 160 W/mK at 310 K, the lowest of the substrate and encasement values cited here.
source: nika2012
where: Section on encased graphene
risks:
hazards:
- text: No workplace exposure limit is set for graphene. The HSE guidance says the ACGIH threshold for graphite respirable dust is not an appropriate limit for graphene. Nanomaterials are treated as substances of high concern, so a precautionary approach applies until inhalation hazards are clear.
ghs: []
source: hsg272
where: Workplace exposure limits section and Control of risk section
- text: Exposure can occur by inhalation, through the skin and by ingestion. Few investigations into skin effects have been reported for nanomaterials other than cosmetics.
ghs: []
source: hsg272
where: Hazard section, paragraph on routes of exposure
- text: PubChem lists the compound Carbon (CID 5462310) under the same formula C; no GHS hazard classification for graphene was read in this run.
ghs: []
source: pubchem-carbon
where: Compound record, Carbon, CID 5462310
failure_risks:
- source: yan2015
where: Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene
mode: 'When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below '
consequence: When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below the suspended-flake values. A design that relies on the suspended value will under-predict temperatures.
side_effects: []
handling:
- text: Keep dust-generating work inside local exhaust ventilation. The HSE guidance asks for enclosure of the process where possible, and LEV for cutting, sawing and polishing operations.
source: hsg272
where: Control of risk, Local exhaust ventilation section
- text: Weigh powders over a damp sheet of absorbent material and wipe spills with a damp sheet, rather than dry sweeping.
source: hsg272
where: Good practice, handling of nanomaterials
- text: Wear suitable single-use gloves and a lab coat that does not retain dust.
source: hsg272
where: Personal protective equipment section
mitigations:
- text: Use a risk management programme in the workplace to reduce exposure, and keep records of LEV checks and tests.
source: hsg272
where: Control of risk section and LEV section
uses:
- application: thermal-control
device: Heat spreader on AlGaN/GaN transistors
example: Few-layer graphene films exfoliated from highly oriented pyrolytic graphite were transferred onto AlGaN/GaN devices on SiC to spread heat from the transistor hot spot in a proof-of-concept experiment.
source: yan2015
where: Section on graphene heat spreaders, experimental demonstration
- application: thermal-control
device: Heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips
example: Single-layer and multilayer graphene grown by CVD on copper and transferred onto thermal evaluation chips with a platinum microheater were tested as heat spreaders.
source: yan2015
where: Section on CVD-grown graphene heat spreaders
- application: electronics-and-chips
device: Heat spreaders in silicon-on-insulator circuits
example: Simulations of graphene lateral heat spreaders attached to the side heat sinks of a SOI circuit reduced the simulated hot-spot temperature. These are simulations, not measurements.
source: yan2015
where: Section on graphene heat spreaders in SOI circuits (simulation)
supply:
- subject: Natural graphite (feedstock for graphene and nanoplatelets)
abundance: USGS reports world reserves of 310,000,000 tons, of which China holds 100,000,000 tons; the rest of the world resources are said to exceed 800 million tons of recoverable graphite.
producers:
- country: China
share_percent: 82
year: 2025
note: share of world natural graphite production, 2025 estimate
critical_lists: []
import_reliance: 100 percent of US apparent consumption (2021 to 2025e)
source: usgs-graphite-2026
where: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Graphite (Natural), Events, Trends and Issues and World Mine Production tables
- subject: Natural graphite imports to the United States
abundance: US net import reliance for natural graphite is 100 percent.
producers:
- country: China (2021 to 2024 import share)
share_percent: 46
year: 2024
- country: Canada
share_percent: 13
year: 2024
- country: Mozambique
share_percent: 13
year: 2024
- country: Mexico
share_percent: 12
year: 2024
critical_lists: []
source: usgs-graphite-2026
where: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Import Sources (2021 to 2024)
media: []
documents:
- title: 'Graphenea: Graphene properties (manufacturer page)'
type: datasheet
url: https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties
year: 2026
- title: Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (Nanomaterials, 2020, 10(5):926, editorial)
type: paper
url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/
year: 2020
- title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural)'
type: report
url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-graphite.pdf
year: 2026
- title: 'HSE HSG272: Using nanomaterials at work'
type: report
url: https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg272.pdf
year: 2013
- title: 'PubChem compound record: Carbon (CID 5462310)'
type: database
url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Carbon
year: 2026
- title: Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene (Yan, Nika, Balandin)
type: paper
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825
year: 2015
- title: Phonon Transport in Graphene (Nika, Balandin)
type: paper
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4282
year: 2012
- title: Suppression of Multilayer Graphene Patches during CVD Graphene growth on Copper (arXiv:1205.1337)
type: paper
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.1337
year: 2012
- title: Structure and Synthesis of graphene oxide (arXiv:1901.02274)
type: paper
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02274
year: 2019
gaps:
- 'Commercial nanoplatelet datasheets not read: XG Sciences, Sigma-Aldrich and SpecialChem pages returned Cloudflare blocks or no content. Search snippets were not used.'
- 'Balandin 2008 single-layer thermal conductivity (5300 W/mK) not read: the Nano Letters paper is not on arXiv under a found ID. The 2000 to 5000 W/mK range is from the 2015 review, for suspended flakes.'
- Oxidation temperature of graphene in air not read from a fetched primary source. The only figure seen was in Wikipedia, which is not used for numbers.
- Wrinkling and ripple effects on ageing not read from a fetched source.
- 'Graphene oxide reduction: the review gives only a qualitative statement that oxidised graphite is reduced to graphene. No reduction temperature or method was read.'
- 'PubChem GHS hazard classification for graphene not read: the PubChem record found is for elemental carbon.'
- NIOSH nanotechnology pages returned errors. Only the HSE HSG272 guidance was read for exposure control.
- USGS critical-mineral status of graphite not read in this run.
- Space or radiation use of graphene not researched in this run.
- Uses are limited to thermal heat spreading from research papers. No commercial product use was read.
- Recipe process lines (CVD on copper, graphene oxide reduction) rest on two arXiv papers listed in documents, not on a numeric source. Only the qualitative process is stated.
sources:
graphenea:
title: Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)
id: Graphenea web page
url: https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties
year: 2026
kind: web
license: Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced
rhee2020:
title: Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (editorial)
id: doi:10.3390/nano10050926 (Nanomaterials 10(5), 926, PMC7279320); author Kyong Yop Rhee
url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/
year: 2020
kind: paper
license: Open access, as listed by PMC
usgs-graphite-2026:
title: 'Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural)'
id: USGS MCS 2026
url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-graphite.pdf
year: 2026
kind: report
license: Public domain (US government)
yan2015:
title: 'Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene: Applications in Electronics'
id: arXiv:1503.01825; Yan, Nika and Balandin
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825
year: 2015
kind: paper
license: arXiv, as listed
nika2012:
title: Phonon Transport in Graphene (invited review)
id: arXiv:1203.4282; Nika and Balandin
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4282
year: 2012
kind: paper
license: arXiv, as listed
pubchem-carbon:
title: 'PubChem compound record: Carbon (CID 5462310)'
id: CID 5462310
url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Carbon
year: 2026
kind: database
license: PubChem, public
hsg272:
title: Using nanomaterials at work, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and other biopersistent high aspect ratio nanomaterials (HARNs), HSG272
id: HSE HSG272
url: https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg272.pdf
year: 2013
kind: report
license: Open Government Licence
cvd-pulsed-cu:
title: Suppression of Multilayer Graphene Patches during CVD Graphene growth on Copper
id: arXiv:1205.1337
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.1337
year: 2012
kind: paper
license: arXiv, as listed
go-synthesis:
title: Structure and Synthesis of graphene oxide
id: arXiv:1901.02274
url: https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02274
year: 2019
kind: paper
license: arXiv, as listed
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-19'
review:
status: draft
method: assistant
checked_values: 15
unreachable: 4
caveats: 3
note: 'Deepened by an assistant on 2026-10-19 from sources read in this run: USGS MCS 2026 graphite, two Balandin-group reviews on arXiv, a CVD-on-copper paper, a graphene oxide synthesis review, HSE HSG272 and PubChem. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not verified.'
story:
recipe:
line: Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms, each bonded to three neighbours in a hexagonal lattice with carbon-carbon bonds of 0.142 nm. Few-layer graphene and nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets. Made by mechanical exfoliation of graphite, by chemical vapour deposition of methane on copper foil, or by oxidising graphite to graphene oxide and then reducing it.
parts:
- name: Carbon
symbol: C
atoms: 1
atomic_weight: 12.011
role: The only element. Each atom bonds to three neighbours in the plane, and the bonds set the strength and stiffness of the sheet.
risk_groups:
- title: For people
level: 1
verdict: Handle as a precaution
lead: No exposure limit is set for graphene, and the UK HSE treats nanomaterials as substances of high concern.
points:
- label: Inhalation
line: Dust should be kept out of the air with local exhaust ventilation. Inhalation, skin contact and ingestion are all routes of exposure, and the skin and ingestion effects are little studied.
why: Graphene is a single sheet of carbon one atom thick. The manufacturer page and the editorial review give very high carrier mobility and stiffness for the ideal single layer. Commercial nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets, and their real properties depend on layer count and lateral size, which were not verified in this run.
uses:
- where: Electronics heat spreading
line: Experiments placed few-layer graphene films on AlGaN/GaN transistors to spread heat from the hot spot. The review also reports simulations for silicon-on-insulator circuits.
- where: Thermal test chips
line: CVD graphene grown on copper has been tested as a heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips.
can_do:
- label: Heat conduction
benchmark: thermal_conductivity
line: Suspended graphene flakes conduct heat at 2000 to 5000 W/mK at room temperature. On a SiO2/Si substrate the cited value falls to about 600 W/mK, and encased single-layer graphene is cited at about 160 W/mK.
- label: Stiffness
benchmark: young_modulus
line: Ideal single-layer graphene is reported at 1 TPa (editorial review) and 0.5 TPa (manufacturer page). The two sources disagree, so treat the stiffness as a range until a primary measurement is read.
- label: Carrier mobility
benchmark: electron_mobility
line: The manufacturer page gives a theoretical electron mobility limit of 200000 cm2/(V.s) for a single layer, and 40000 cm2/(V.s) with a SiO2 substrate. These are limits, not measured values for a commercial product.
compare: Ideal single-layer graphene combines a very high theoretical electron mobility with a stiffness near 1 TPa. Commercial nanoplatelets were not read in this run, so this profile does not compare them with other carbon materials.
compare_rows:
- scope: material
label: Electron mobility limit
benchmark: electron_mobility
- scope: material
label: Young modulus
benchmark: young_modulus
- scope: material
label: Thermal conductivity, suspended
benchmark: thermal_conductivity
handling:
- Keep dust-generating work under local exhaust ventilation, and wipe spills with a damp sheet.
- Wear single-use gloves and a lab coat that does not retain dust. Check the supplier safety data sheet for the product you use.
good_for:
- Ideal single-layer electronics and mechanics, where the theoretical limits matter. The numbers here are not measurements on a commercial product.
watch_out:
- Only ideal single-layer values are included. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not verified and should not be assumed.
- The two stiffness sources disagree, 0.5 TPa against 1 TPa.
- Thermal conduction drops sharply once the sheet is supported on a substrate, so suspended values do not describe a device.
verdict: Graphene has very high ideal single-layer values on the sources read here. For a commercial nanoplatelet choice, the product datasheet has to be read first.
References
Every number above carries a reference number. Click one to see the source and where in it the value comes from.
| # | Source | Type | Year | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page) | web | 2026 | 11 values | |
| Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (editorial) | paper | 2020 | 2 values | |
| Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural) | report | 2026 | 2 values | |
| Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene: Applications in Electronics | paper | 2015 | 7 values | |
| Phonon Transport in Graphene (invited review) | paper | 2012 | 2 values | |
| PubChem compound record: Carbon (CID 5462310) | database | 2026 | 1 value | |
| Using nanomaterials at work, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and other biopersistent high aspect ratio nanomaterials (HARNs), HSG272 | report | 2013 | 6 values | |
| Suppression of Multilayer Graphene Patches during CVD Graphene growth on Copper | paper | 2012 | 0 values | |
| Structure and Synthesis of graphene oxide | paper | 2019 | 0 values |