{ "spore": "profile", "id": "graphene", "spore_version": "0.2", "family": "carbon-materials", "name": "Graphene", "abbreviation": "Graphene", "role": "2D carbon sheet (single-layer and few-layer), also sold as graphene nanoplatelets", "category": "carbon", "type": "Graphene", "summary": "Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice, one atom thick. Few-layer graphene and graphene nanoplatelets are stacks of a few to many such sheets. The ideal single-layer values quoted here (mobility, strength, stiffness, optical absorption) come from a manufacturer's properties page and an editorial review. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not read in this run and are not included.\n", "best_for": "Ideal single-layer mechanics and electronics, where a very high carrier mobility or stiffness per unit mass is the goal", "weakest_at": "Commercial material properties were not verified in this run, so real nanoplatelet performance is not established here", "identity": { "formula": "C (single sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice; nanoplatelets are stacked sheets)", "cas": "", "crystal_system": "hexagonal lattice (two-dimensional)", "space_group": "", "designations": [], "source": "graphenea", "where": "Graphene Structure section (atomic thickness 0.345 nm); C-C bond length in Mechanical Strength section" }, "tags": { "environments": [], "stresses": [], "applications": [ "thermal-control", "electronics-and-chips" ] }, "properties": [ { "benchmark": "thickness", "label": "Atomic thickness of one graphene layer", "value": 0.345, "bound": "exact", "unit": "nm", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "single atomic layer, as printed on the manufacturer's properties page" }, "method": "Value printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Graphene Structure section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "electron_mobility", "label": "Theoretical electron mobility limit, single-layer graphene", "value": 200000, "bound": "exact", "unit": "cm2/(V.s)", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "theoretical limit for an ideal single layer, as printed; sample and temperature not given", "substrate": "none stated" }, "method": "Theoretical limit printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "calculated", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Electronic Properties section, 'Theoretical mobility limit'", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "electron_mobility", "label": "Mobility limit with SiO2 substrate", "value": 40000, "bound": "exact", "unit": "cm2/(V.s)", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "mobility limit for graphene on a SiO2 substrate, as printed", "substrate": "SiO2" }, "method": "Limit printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "calculated", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Electronic Properties section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "electron_mobility", "label": "Electron mobility previously reported", "value": 15000, "bound": "lower", "unit": "cm2/(V.s)", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "previously reported value, as printed (above 15,000); sample and temperature not stated" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "note": "Experimental lower bound from the page; the page gives no sample or temperature, so it is not comparable with the theoretical limit.", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Electronic Properties section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "young_modulus", "label": "Young's modulus, single-layer graphene (manufacturer page)", "value": 0.5, "bound": "exact", "unit": "TPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "ideal single layer, as printed; test method not stated" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "note": "Differs from the 1 TPa given in the editorial review below; the two sources do not agree.", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Mechanical Strength section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "young_modulus", "label": "Young's modulus, graphene (editorial review)", "value": 1, "bound": "exact", "unit": "TPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "no conditions stated; the review does not say single-layer explicitly" }, "method": "Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial", "status": "ground", "note": "Second source value; see the Graphenea entry for the 0.5 TPa figure.", "source": "rhee2020", "where": "Opening paragraph", "source_detail": { "title": "Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (editorial)", "id": "doi:10.3390/nano10050926 (Nanomaterials 10(5), 926, PMC7279320); author Kyong Yop Rhee", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/", "year": 2020, "kind": "paper", "license": "Open access, as listed by PMC" } }, { "benchmark": "intrinsic_strength", "label": "Intrinsic tensile strength, ideal graphene", "value": 130, "bound": "exact", "unit": "GPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "intrinsic (ideal, defect-free) strength; test conditions not stated in the source" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page; the same 130 GPa figure appears in the editorial review", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Mechanical Strength section, 'Ultimate tensile strength'", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "intrinsic_strength", "label": "Intrinsic strength, graphene (editorial review)", "value": 130, "bound": "exact", "unit": "GPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "no conditions stated" }, "method": "Value stated in the opening paragraph of an open-access editorial", "status": "ground", "source": "rhee2020", "where": "Opening paragraph", "source_detail": { "title": "Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (editorial)", "id": "doi:10.3390/nano10050926 (Nanomaterials 10(5), 926, PMC7279320); author Kyong Yop Rhee", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/", "year": 2020, "kind": "paper", "license": "Open access, as listed by PMC" } }, { "benchmark": "optical_absorption", "label": "White-light absorption by one layer", "value": 2.3, "bound": "exact", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "one layer of graphene, white light, as printed" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Optical Properties section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "spring_constant", "label": "Spring constant, graphene membrane (AFM)", "value": 1, "value_high": 5, "bound": "range", "unit": "N/m", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "range printed on the Graphenea page; test geometry not stated" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Mechanical Strength section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "areal_density", "label": "Areal density of a graphene sheet", "value": 0.77, "bound": "exact", "unit": "mg/m2", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "single sheet, as printed" }, "method": "Printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Mechanical Strength section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "bond_length", "label": "Carbon-carbon bond length in graphene", "value": 0.142, "bound": "exact", "unit": "nm", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "in-plane C-C bond, as printed" }, "method": "Value printed on the Graphenea properties page", "status": "ground", "source": "graphenea", "where": "Mechanical Strength section", "source_detail": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" } }, { "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "label": "Thermal conductivity, suspended graphene flakes (optothermal)", "value": 2000, "value_high": 5000, "bound": "range", "unit": "W/mK", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "room temperature, suspended large-area graphene flakes; range as stated in the review; single-layer not separated", "substrate": "none (suspended)" }, "method": "Range given in the review, citing optothermal Raman measurements by Balandin and co-workers", "status": "ground", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Introduction, paragraph on thermal properties of graphene", "source_detail": { "title": "Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene: Applications in Electronics", "id": "arXiv:1503.01825; Yan, Nika and Balandin", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825", "year": 2015, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" } }, { "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "label": "Thermal conductivity, graphene on SiO2/Si", "value": 600, "bound": "exact", "unit": "W/mK", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "near room temperature, in-plane, as cited in the review", "substrate": "SiO2/Si" }, "method": "Value cited in the review from Seol et al.", "status": "ground", "note": "Supported graphene conducts less heat than suspended graphene because of coupling to the substrate.", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene", "source_detail": { "title": "Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene: Applications in Electronics", "id": "arXiv:1503.01825; Yan, Nika and Balandin", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825", "year": 2015, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" } }, { "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "label": "Thermal conductivity, single-layer graphene encased in SiO2", "value": 160, "bound": "exact", "unit": "W/mK", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "basis": "single-layer graphene encased in oxide, at 310 K", "temperature": "310 K", "substrate": "SiO2 encased" }, "method": "Value cited in the review for encased single-layer graphene", "status": "ground", "source": "nika2012", "where": "Section on encased graphene (encased single-layer graphene paragraph)", "source_detail": { "title": "Phonon Transport in Graphene (invited review)", "id": "arXiv:1203.4282; Nika and Balandin", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4282", "year": 2012, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" } } ], "corrosion": [ { "environment": "Supported on SiO2/Si substrate", "headline": "Heat conduction falls when graphene sits on a substrate", "effect": "Thermal conductivity of graphene on SiO2/Si is cited near 600 W/mK at room temperature, against 2000 to 5000 W/mK for suspended flakes. The review ascribes the drop to thermal coupling to the substrate and to scattering at substrate defects and impurities.", "rating": "unknown", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene" }, { "environment": "Encased in SiO2 oxide", "headline": "Encasing lowers heat conduction further", "effect": "Single-layer graphene encased in oxide is cited at about 160 W/mK at 310 K, the lowest of the substrate and encasement values cited here.", "rating": "unknown", "source": "nika2012", "where": "Section on encased graphene" } ], "risks": { "hazards": [ { "text": "No workplace exposure limit is set for graphene. The HSE guidance says the ACGIH threshold for graphite respirable dust is not an appropriate limit for graphene. Nanomaterials are treated as substances of high concern, so a precautionary approach applies until inhalation hazards are clear.", "ghs": [], "source": "hsg272", "where": "Workplace exposure limits section and Control of risk section" }, { "text": "Exposure can occur by inhalation, through the skin and by ingestion. Few investigations into skin effects have been reported for nanomaterials other than cosmetics.", "ghs": [], "source": "hsg272", "where": "Hazard section, paragraph on routes of exposure" }, { "text": "PubChem lists the compound Carbon (CID 5462310) under the same formula C; no GHS hazard classification for graphene was read in this run.", "ghs": [], "source": "pubchem-carbon", "where": "Compound record, Carbon, CID 5462310" } ], "failure_risks": [ { "mode": "When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below ", "consequence": "When graphene is supported on a substrate, its heat conduction falls well below the suspended-flake values. A design that relies on the suspended value will under-predict temperatures.", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on thermal conductivity of supported graphene" } ], "side_effects": [], "handling": [ { "text": "Keep dust-generating work inside local exhaust ventilation. The HSE guidance asks for enclosure of the process where possible, and LEV for cutting, sawing and polishing operations.", "source": "hsg272", "where": "Control of risk, Local exhaust ventilation section" }, { "text": "Weigh powders over a damp sheet of absorbent material and wipe spills with a damp sheet, rather than dry sweeping.", "source": "hsg272", "where": "Good practice, handling of nanomaterials" }, { "text": "Wear suitable single-use gloves and a lab coat that does not retain dust.", "source": "hsg272", "where": "Personal protective equipment section" } ], "mitigations": [ { "text": "Use a risk management programme in the workplace to reduce exposure, and keep records of LEV checks and tests.", "source": "hsg272", "where": "Control of risk section and LEV section" } ] }, "uses": [ { "application": "thermal-control", "device": "Heat spreader on AlGaN/GaN transistors", "example": "Few-layer graphene films exfoliated from highly oriented pyrolytic graphite were transferred onto AlGaN/GaN devices on SiC to spread heat from the transistor hot spot in a proof-of-concept experiment.", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on graphene heat spreaders, experimental demonstration" }, { "application": "thermal-control", "device": "Heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips", "example": "Single-layer and multilayer graphene grown by CVD on copper and transferred onto thermal evaluation chips with a platinum microheater were tested as heat spreaders.", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on CVD-grown graphene heat spreaders" }, { "application": "electronics-and-chips", "device": "Heat spreaders in silicon-on-insulator circuits", "example": "Simulations of graphene lateral heat spreaders attached to the side heat sinks of a SOI circuit reduced the simulated hot-spot temperature. These are simulations, not measurements.", "source": "yan2015", "where": "Section on graphene heat spreaders in SOI circuits (simulation)" } ], "supply": [ { "subject": "Natural graphite (feedstock for graphene and nanoplatelets)", "abundance": "USGS reports world reserves of 310,000,000 tons, of which China holds 100,000,000 tons; the rest of the world resources are said to exceed 800 million tons of recoverable graphite.", "producers": [ { "country": "China", "share_percent": 82, "year": 2025 } ], "critical_lists": [], "substitutes": [], "source": "usgs-graphite-2026", "where": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Graphite (Natural), Events, Trends and Issues and World Mine Production tables" }, { "subject": "Natural graphite imports to the United States", "abundance": "US net import reliance for natural graphite is 100 percent.", "producers": [ { "country": "China (2021 to 2024 import share)", "share_percent": 46, "year": 2024 }, { "country": "Canada", "share_percent": 13, "year": 2024 }, { "country": "Mozambique", "share_percent": 13, "year": 2024 }, { "country": "Mexico", "share_percent": 12, "year": 2024 } ], "critical_lists": [], "substitutes": [], "source": "usgs-graphite-2026", "where": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Import Sources (2021 to 2024)" } ], "media": [], "documents": [ { "title": "Graphenea: Graphene properties (manufacturer page)", "type": "datasheet", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (Nanomaterials, 2020, 10(5):926, editorial)", "type": "paper", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/", "year": 2020 }, { "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural)", "type": "report", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-graphite.pdf", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "HSE HSG272: Using nanomaterials at work", "type": "report", "url": "https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg272.pdf", "year": 2013 }, { "title": "PubChem compound record: Carbon (CID 5462310)", "type": "database", "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Carbon", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene (Yan, Nika, Balandin)", "type": "paper", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825", "year": 2015 }, { "title": "Phonon Transport in Graphene (Nika, Balandin)", "type": "paper", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4282", "year": 2012 }, { "title": "Suppression of Multilayer Graphene Patches during CVD Graphene growth on Copper (arXiv:1205.1337)", "type": "paper", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.1337", "year": 2012 }, { "title": "Structure and Synthesis of graphene oxide (arXiv:1901.02274)", "type": "paper", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02274", "year": 2019 } ], "gaps": [ "Commercial nanoplatelet datasheets not read: XG Sciences, Sigma-Aldrich and SpecialChem pages returned Cloudflare blocks or no content. Search snippets were not used.", "Balandin 2008 single-layer thermal conductivity (5300 W/mK) not read: the Nano Letters paper is not on arXiv under a found ID. The 2000 to 5000 W/mK range is from the 2015 review, for suspended flakes.", "Oxidation temperature of graphene in air not read from a fetched primary source. The only figure seen was in Wikipedia, which is not used for numbers.", "Wrinkling and ripple effects on ageing not read from a fetched source.", "Graphene oxide reduction: the review gives only a qualitative statement that oxidised graphite is reduced to graphene. No reduction temperature or method was read.", "PubChem GHS hazard classification for graphene not read: the PubChem record found is for elemental carbon.", "NIOSH nanotechnology pages returned errors. Only the HSE HSG272 guidance was read for exposure control.", "USGS critical-mineral status of graphite not read in this run.", "Space or radiation use of graphene not researched in this run.", "Uses are limited to thermal heat spreading from research papers. No commercial product use was read.", "Recipe process lines (CVD on copper, graphene oxide reduction) rest on two arXiv papers listed in documents, not on a numeric source. Only the qualitative process is stated." ], "story": { "why": "Graphene is a single sheet of carbon one atom thick. The manufacturer page and the editorial review give very high carrier mobility and stiffness for the ideal single layer. Commercial nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets, and their real properties depend on layer count and lateral size, which were not verified in this run.", "uses": [ { "where": "Electronics heat spreading", "line": "Experiments placed few-layer graphene films on AlGaN/GaN transistors to spread heat from the hot spot. The review also reports simulations for silicon-on-insulator circuits." }, { "where": "Thermal test chips", "line": "CVD graphene grown on copper has been tested as a heat spreader on thermal evaluation chips." } ], "can_do": [ { "label": "Heat conduction", "line": "Suspended graphene flakes conduct heat at 2000 to 5000 W/mK at room temperature. On a SiO2/Si substrate the cited value falls to about 600 W/mK, and encased single-layer graphene is cited at about 160 W/mK.", "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Stiffness", "line": "Ideal single-layer graphene is reported at 1 TPa (editorial review) and 0.5 TPa (manufacturer page). The two sources disagree, so treat the stiffness as a range until a primary measurement is read.", "benchmark": "young_modulus", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Carrier mobility", "line": "The manufacturer page gives a theoretical electron mobility limit of 200000 cm2/(V.s) for a single layer, and 40000 cm2/(V.s) with a SiO2 substrate. These are limits, not measured values for a commercial product.", "benchmark": "electron_mobility", "scope": "material" } ], "compare": "Ideal single-layer graphene combines a very high theoretical electron mobility with a stiffness near 1 TPa. Commercial nanoplatelets were not read in this run, so this profile does not compare them with other carbon materials.", "compare_rows": [ { "label": "Electron mobility limit", "benchmark": "electron_mobility", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Young modulus", "benchmark": "young_modulus", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Thermal conductivity, suspended", "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "scope": "material" } ], "handling": [ "Keep dust-generating work under local exhaust ventilation, and wipe spills with a damp sheet.", "Wear single-use gloves and a lab coat that does not retain dust. Check the supplier safety data sheet for the product you use." ], "good_for": [ "Ideal single-layer electronics and mechanics, where the theoretical limits matter. The numbers here are not measurements on a commercial product." ], "watch_out": [ "Only ideal single-layer values are included. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not verified and should not be assumed.", "The two stiffness sources disagree, 0.5 TPa against 1 TPa.", "Thermal conduction drops sharply once the sheet is supported on a substrate, so suspended values do not describe a device." ], "verdict": "Graphene has very high ideal single-layer values on the sources read here. For a commercial nanoplatelet choice, the product datasheet has to be read first.", "recipe": { "line": "Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms, each bonded to three neighbours in a hexagonal lattice with carbon-carbon bonds of 0.142 nm. Few-layer graphene and nanoplatelets are stacks of such sheets. Made by mechanical exfoliation of graphite, by chemical vapour deposition of methane on copper foil, or by oxidising graphite to graphene oxide and then reducing it.", "parts": [ { "name": "Carbon", "symbol": "C", "role": "The only element. Each atom bonds to three neighbours in the plane, and the bonds set the strength and stiffness of the sheet.", "atoms": 1, "atomic_weight": 12.011 } ] }, "risk_groups": [ { "title": "For people", "lead": "No exposure limit is set for graphene, and the UK HSE treats nanomaterials as substances of high concern.", "points": [ { "label": "Inhalation", "line": "Dust should be kept out of the air with local exhaust ventilation. Inhalation, skin contact and ingestion are all routes of exposure, and the skin and ingestion effects are little studied." } ], "level": 1, "verdict": "Handle as a precaution" } ] }, "updated": "2026-10-19", "review": { "status": "draft", "method": "assistant", "checked_values": 15, "unreachable": 4, "caveats": 3, "note": "Deepened by an assistant on 2026-10-19 from sources read in this run: USGS MCS 2026 graphite, two Balandin-group reviews on arXiv, a CVD-on-copper paper, a graphene oxide synthesis review, HSE HSG272 and PubChem. Commercial nanoplatelet values were not verified." }, "sources": { "graphenea": { "title": "Graphene properties (Graphenea manufacturer page)", "id": "Graphenea web page", "url": "https://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene-properties", "year": 2026, "kind": "web", "license": "Manufacturer web page, cited not reproduced" }, "rhee2020": { "title": "Electronic and Thermal Properties of Graphene (editorial)", "id": "doi:10.3390/nano10050926 (Nanomaterials 10(5), 926, PMC7279320); author Kyong Yop Rhee", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7279320/", "year": 2020, "kind": "paper", "license": "Open access, as listed by PMC" }, "usgs-graphite-2026": { "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Graphite (Natural)", "id": "USGS MCS 2026", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-graphite.pdf", "year": 2026, "kind": "report", "license": "Public domain (US government)" }, "yan2015": { "title": "Review of Thermal Properties of Graphene and Few-Layer Graphene: Applications in Electronics", "id": "arXiv:1503.01825; Yan, Nika and Balandin", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.01825", "year": 2015, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" }, "nika2012": { "title": "Phonon Transport in Graphene (invited review)", "id": "arXiv:1203.4282; Nika and Balandin", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4282", "year": 2012, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" }, "pubchem-carbon": { "title": "PubChem compound record: Carbon (CID 5462310)", "id": "CID 5462310", "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Carbon", "year": 2026, "kind": "database", "license": "PubChem, public" }, "hsg272": { "title": "Using nanomaterials at work, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and other biopersistent high aspect ratio nanomaterials (HARNs), HSG272", "id": "HSE HSG272", "url": "https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg272.pdf", "year": 2013, "kind": "report", "license": "Open Government Licence" }, "cvd-pulsed-cu": { "title": "Suppression of Multilayer Graphene Patches during CVD Graphene growth on Copper", "id": "arXiv:1205.1337", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.1337", "year": 2012, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" }, "go-synthesis": { "title": "Structure and Synthesis of graphene oxide", "id": "arXiv:1901.02274", "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02274", "year": 2019, "kind": "paper", "license": "arXiv, as listed" } }, "license": "CC-BY-4.0", "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/graphene/" }