spore: profile
id: ytterbium
spore_version: 0.2
family: rare-earth-metals
name: Ytterbium
abbreviation: Yb
role: dopant for fibre lasers, stainless-steel additive and reactive rare-earth metal
category: metals
type: heavy-metals
summary: |
  Ytterbium is the element Yb (atomic number 70), a soft, silvery, malleable rare-earth metal. The Goodfellow 99.9 % pellet has a density of 6.977 g/cm3 at 20 °C and a melting point of 819 °C, and Wikipedia gives 6.967 g/cm3 and 824 °C for the element. It is a heavy rare earth (USGS), with an average crustal abundance of about 3 mg/kg (Wikipedia). The metal is made by reducing its oxide with lanthanum, aluminium, cerium or zirconium in high vacuum. One documented technical use is as a dopant in fibre lasers, and NASA Goddard has built a Yb-doped fibre ring laser at 1064 nm for the LISA gravitational-wave mission. The metal itself is a flammable solid. Fine powder ignites, and contact with water releases flammable gas, so it needs dry, inert handling.
best_for: Dopant for solid-state and fibre lasers, and reference data for a heavy rare-earth metal (NASA Goddard LISA laser; Wikipedia)
weakest_at: Fine powder that ignites in air, and metal that releases flammable gas on contact with water (Samat and Trace Sciences SDS, PubChem)
identity:
  formula: Yb (element, atomic number 70); unalloyed metal, sold as 99.9 % pellets by Goodfellow
  cas: 7440-64-4
  source: pubchem-yb
  where: PubChem CID 23992 record, Other Identifiers, CAS 7440-64-4; EC number 231-173-2 is printed in the Trace Sciences SDS, Section 3
tags:
  environments: []
  applications:
    - optics-and-cameras
    - structures
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 6.977
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Physical Properties table, row Density (6.977 at 20 °C)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ytterbium powder (Samat SDS)
    value: 6.97
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      form: powder
    method: Value printed in a safety data sheet, Section 9
    status: ground
    source: samat-yb-sds
    where: Section 9, Physical and Chemical Properties, row Density at 20 °C (68 °F) 6.97 g/cm3
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ytterbium metal powder (Trace Sciences SDS)
    value: 6.54
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 25 °C
      form: powder
    method: Value printed in a safety data sheet, Section 9
    status: ground
    note: The Trace Sciences SDS gives 6.54 g/cm3 at 25 °C, which is about 6 % below the 6.97 g/cm3 at 20 °C from Goodfellow and Samat. The difference may come from the temperature or the sample, and both values are kept.
    source: trace-yb-sds
    where: Section 9, Physical and Chemical Properties, row Density 6.54 g/cm3 at 25 °C (77 °F)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 6.967
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      unit_in_source: 6.967 g/cm3
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Density (at 20° C) 6.967 g/cm3
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density of solid, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 6570
    unit: kg/m3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    note: WebElements prints 6570 kg m-3 (6.57 g/cm3) with no temperature. That is lower than the 6.97 g/cm3 values above, and it is entered as printed.
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Physical properties table, row Density of solid 6570 kg m-3
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 819
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Thermal Properties table, row Melting point (819)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, ytterbium powder (Samat SDS)
    value: 819
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: powder
    method: Value printed in a safety data sheet, Section 9
    status: ground
    source: samat-yb-sds
    where: Section 9, row Melting point/Melting range 819 °C (1506 °F)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, ytterbium metal powder (Trace Sciences SDS)
    value: 824
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: powder
    method: Value printed in a safety data sheet, Section 9
    status: ground
    source: trace-yb-sds
    where: Section 9, row Melting point/freezing point 824 °C (1,515 °F)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 824
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      unit_in_source: 1097 K (824 °C, 1515 °F)
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Melting point, 1097 K (824 °C, 1515 °F)
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 1194
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      purity: 99.9%
    method: Value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    note: Goodfellow gives 1194 °C and the SDS and Wikipedia sources give 1196 °C. The 2 °C difference is kept, and both values are entered.
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Physical Properties table, row Boiling point (1194)
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, ytterbium powder (Samat SDS)
    value: 1196
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      form: powder
    method: Value printed in a safety data sheet, Section 9
    status: ground
    source: samat-yb-sds
    where: Section 9, row Boiling point/Boiling range 1196 °C (2185 °F)
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 1196
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      unit_in_source: 1469 K (1196 °C, 2185 °F)
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Boiling point, 1469 K (1196 °C, 2185 °F)
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    label: Specific heat capacity, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 145
    unit: J/(kg·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 25 °C
      purity: 99.9%
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Thermal Properties table, row Specific heat (145 at 25 °C)
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    label: Specific heat capacity, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 154.522
    unit: J/(kg·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    note: The Wikipedia infobox gives this value with no temperature, and the supplier value is at 25 °C. The two differ by about 6 %.
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Specific heat capacity 154.522 J/(kg·K)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 32.9
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 0 to 100 °C
      purity: 99.9%
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Thermal Properties table, row Thermal conductivity (32.9 at 0-100 °C)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 34.9
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Thermal properties table, row Thermal conductivity 34.9 W m-1 K-1
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 38.5
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    note: The Wikipedia infobox gives 38.5 W/(m·K) with no temperature, and the Goodfellow pellet gives 32.9 W/(m·K) at 0 to 100 °C. The two differ by about 15 %.
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Thermal conductivity 38.5 W/(m⋅K)
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Coefficient of thermal expansion, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 25
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 0 to 100 °C
      purity: 99.9%
      unit_in_source: 25 x10-6 K-1
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Thermal Properties table, row Coefficient of thermal expansion (25 at 0-100 °C)
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 26.3
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
      unit_in_source: 26.3 × 10-6 K-1
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Thermal properties table, row Coefficient of linear thermal expansion 26.3 × 10-6 K-1
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Tensile modulus, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 17.8
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet, under the row Tensile modulus
    status: ground
    note: The Goodfellow page prints this row as Tensile modulus, and does not print Young's modulus. It is entered under the canonical elastic_modulus name.
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Tensile modulus (17.8 GPa)
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, ytterbium beta form (Wikipedia)
    value: 23.9
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
      form: beta form, as printed in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Young's modulus, beta form 23.9 GPa
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 24
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Mechanical properties table, row Young's modulus 24 GPa
  - benchmark: shear_modulus
    label: Shear modulus, ytterbium beta form (Wikipedia)
    value: 9.9
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
      form: beta form, as printed in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Shear modulus, beta form 9.9 GPa
  - benchmark: shear_modulus
    label: Rigidity modulus, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 9.9
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Mechanical properties table, row Rigidity modulus 9.9 GPa
  - benchmark: bulk_modulus
    label: Bulk modulus, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 13.5
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    note: The Goodfellow bulk modulus of 13.5 GPa is less than half the 30.5 GPa and 31 GPa values from Wikipedia and WebElements. The conflict is kept, and this value is entered as printed.
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Bulk modulus (13.5 GPa)
  - benchmark: bulk_modulus
    label: Bulk modulus, ytterbium beta form (Wikipedia)
    value: 30.5
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
      form: beta form, as printed in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Bulk modulus, beta form 30.5 GPa
  - benchmark: bulk_modulus
    label: Bulk modulus, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 31
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page
    status: ground
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Mechanical properties table, row Bulk modulus 31 GPa
  - benchmark: poissons_ratio
    label: Poisson's ratio, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 0.28
    unit: '-'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Poisson's ratio (0.28, no unit printed)
  - benchmark: poissons_ratio
    label: Poisson's ratio, ytterbium beta form (Wikipedia)
    value: 0.207
    unit: '-'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
      form: beta form, as printed in the infobox
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Poisson ratio, beta form 0.207
  - benchmark: vickers_hardness
    label: Vickers hardness, ytterbium (WebElements)
    value: 206
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Value printed on the WebElements physical-properties page, given as MN m-2 (equal to MPa)
    status: ground
    note: No canonical name exists for hardness in the property file, so vickers_hardness is a new name and is listed in gaps.
    source: webelements-yb
    where: Hardnesses, row Vickers hardness 206 MN m-2
  - benchmark: vickers_hardness
    label: Vickers hardness range, ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    value: 205
    value_high: 250
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the infobox
      note_on_range: the infobox gives a range, not a single test value
    method: Range printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    note: No canonical name exists for hardness, so vickers_hardness is a new name and is listed in gaps. Wikipedia gives a range without test conditions.
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Vickers hardness 205–250 MPa
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 28
    unit: µOhm·cm
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Electrical Properties table, row Electrical resistivity (28 at 20 °C)
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity, ytterbium beta polycrystalline (Wikipedia)
    value: 0.25
    unit: µΩ·m
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: room temperature, as printed
      form: beta, polycrystalline
    method: Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox
    status: ground
    note: 0.250 µΩ·m equals 25.0 µΩ·cm, about 11 % below the Goodfellow pellet value of 28 µOhm·cm at 20 °C. Both are entered with their conditions.
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Infobox, row Electrical resistivity, beta poly 0.250 µΩ⋅m (at r.t.)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 68.9
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: not printed
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    note: The datasheet gives one tensile value for a pellet and does not print the temper. It should not be read as a value for a wrought or annealed form.
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Tensile strength (68.9 MPa)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength, ytterbium pellet (99.9 %)
    value: 65.5
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: not printed
      purity: 99.9%
      form: pellets
      temperature: not stated in the table
    method: Typical value printed in a supplier product datasheet
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-yb
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Yield strength (65.5 MPa)
corrosion:
  - environment: Air at room temperature
    headline: Ytterbium tarnishes slowly in air, but finely divided metal oxidizes readily.
    effect: Wikipedia says the metal tarnishes slowly in air and takes on a golden or brown hue, and that finely dispersed ytterbium oxidizes readily in air and under oxygen. No corrosion rate is given in the sources read.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      temperature: room temperature
      form: massive metal and finely dispersed powder
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Chemical properties section, paragraph on air
  - environment: Air and moisture in storage (powder)
    headline: The Samat powder is air sensitive and moisture sensitive, and must be kept under dry inert gas.
    effect: The Samat SDS gives air sensitivity, the need for dry inert gas, and protection from humidity and water as storage conditions. It does not give a corrosion rate.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      atmosphere: air and humidity
      form: powder
    source: samat-yb-sds
    where: Section 7, Storage; Further information about storage conditions
  - environment: Cold and hot water
    headline: Ytterbium reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form ytterbium(III) hydroxide.
    effect: Wikipedia says the metal reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form ytterbium(III) hydroxide. The Samat SDS says contact with water releases flammable gases which may ignite spontaneously.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      temperature: cold and hot water
      form: metal
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Chemical properties section, paragraph on water
  - environment: Strong and dilute acids
    headline: Ytterbium dissolves quickly in acids and releases hydrogen.
    effect: Wikipedia says ytterbium dissolves slowly in water but quickly in acids, liberating hydrogen. The Trace Sciences SDS lists strong acids as a material with which violent reactions are possible.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      acid: strong, not named
      temperature: not stated
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Chemical properties section, paragraph on acids
  - environment: Halogens and strong oxidizing agents
    headline: Violent reactions are possible with halogens, and the metal is incompatible with strong oxidizers.
    effect: The Trace Sciences SDS says violent reactions are possible with strong acids and halogens, and lists strong oxidizing agents and halogens as materials to avoid. The Samat SDS lists oxidizing agents and halogens as incompatible materials.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      atmosphere: halogens and oxidizers
      temperature: not stated
    source: trace-yb-sds
    where: Section 10.2 Possibility of hazardous reactions; Section 10.4 Materials to avoid
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: 'PubChem GHS summary (ECHA C&L notifications, 50 company reports): H228 flammable solid in 84 % of reports, H250 catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air in 10 %. H302, H312 and H332 (harmful) are in 84 % of reports each, H315 and H319 in 82 %, and H335 in 82 %. Signal word Danger. 3 of 50 reports say the substance does not meet GHS criteria.'
      ghs:
        - H228
        - H250
        - H252
        - H302
        - H312
        - H315
        - H319
        - H332
        - H335
      source: pubchem-yb
      where: Safety and Hazards, Hazards Identification, GHS Classification
    - text: 'Trace Sciences SDS for ytterbium metal powder: flammable solid, Category 1 (H228), harmful if swallowed, in contact with skin or if inhaled (H302, H312, H332), skin irritation (H315), eye irritation (H319), and respiratory irritation (H335). Signal word Danger.'
      ghs:
        - H228
        - H302
        - H312
        - H315
        - H319
        - H332
        - H335
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 2, Hazards identification
    - text: 'Stanford Advanced Materials SDS for ytterbium powder (revised 29/12/2022): flammable solid (H228) and water-reactive, Category 1 (H260, in contact with water releases flammable gases which may ignite spontaneously). Signal word Danger, WHMIS class B6, reactive flammable material.'
      ghs:
        - H228
        - H260
      source: samat-yb-sds
      where: Section 2, Classification and GHS label elements
    - text: 'PubChem toxicity summary: its acute toxic rating is low, and the record links occupational disease to rare-earth metals in general. The Trace Sciences SDS says the acute and chronic toxicity is not fully known.'
      ghs: []
      source: pubchem-yb
      where: Safety and Hazards, Hazards Summary; Trace Sciences SDS, Section 11
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Fire in powder and fines
      trigger: Ytterbium powder or fines exposed to air, to ignition sources, or to electrostatic charge
      consequence: The metal is a flammable solid, Category 1 (H228, Trace and Samat SDS). PubChem records H250, catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air, in 10 % of its notifications, so fine metal in air can ignite on its own. Dust must be kept away from ignition sources.
      severity: critical
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 2 (H228); Section 7, Handling and Storage (avoid dust, keep away from ignition); Samat Section 7 (protect against electrostatic charges); PubChem GHS Classification
    - mode: Flammable gas on contact with water
      trigger: Metal in contact with water, moisture or hot water
      consequence: Water releases flammable gas that may ignite spontaneously (H260, Samat SDS). Wikipedia says the metal reacts quite quickly with hot water to form the hydroxide. Water must not be used on the burning metal.
      severity: critical
      source: samat-yb-sds
      where: Section 2 (H260 water-reactive); Section 10, Reactivity; Section 5, Extinguishing media
    - mode: Surface oxidation in air
      trigger: Exposure of massive metal or powder to air or moisture over time
      consequence: The metal tarnishes slowly, and finely divided metal oxidizes readily. Storage under dry inert gas is needed to keep the surface and the powder unchanged.
      severity: moderate
      source: wikipedia-yb
      where: Chemical properties section, paragraph on air
    - mode: Violent reaction with acids and halogens
      trigger: Contact with strong acids, halogens or strong oxidizing agents
      consequence: The Trace Sciences SDS says violent reactions are possible with strong acids and halogens. Wikipedia says the metal dissolves quickly in acids and releases hydrogen. Contact with the incompatible materials must be avoided.
      severity: high
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 10.2 Possibility of hazardous reactions; Section 10.4 Materials to avoid
  side_effects:
    - text: PubChem's toxicity summary lists fibrogenic effects, meaning tissue injury and fibrosis (scarring), for rare-earth metals in its adverse-effects section, and says the acute toxic rating is low.
      affects: Workers who breathe ytterbium dust or fume
      source: pubchem-yb
      where: Toxicity, Toxicological Information, Adverse Effects; Safety and Hazards, Hazards Summary
  handling:
    - text: Handle and store under inert gas. The Trace Sciences SDS says the metal is air and moisture sensitive.
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 7.2 Conditions for safe storage
    - text: Store under dry inert gas in a tightly sealed container, away from water and moisture, acids, oxidizing agents, halogens and acid chlorides (Samat SDS).
      source: samat-yb-sds
      where: Section 7, Storage, and Further information about storage conditions
    - text: Avoid forming dust and aerosols, and provide exhaust ventilation where dust is formed. Keep away from sources of ignition (Trace Sciences SDS).
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 7, Handling and Storage
    - text: For fire, the Trace SDS gives P370 + P378, dry sand, dry chemical or alcohol-resistant foam. The Samat SDS gives special powder for metal fires and says do not use water. The Trace SDS also lists water spray, which conflicts with the Samat SDS and is recorded in gaps.
      source: samat-yb-sds
      where: Section 5, Extinguishing media; Trace Sciences SDS, precautionary statement P370 + P378 and Section 5.2
    - text: Where risk assessment shows air-purifying respirators are appropriate, use a full-face particle respirator (Trace Sciences SDS).
      source: trace-yb-sds
      where: Section 8, Exposure controls and personal protection
  mitigations: []
uses:
  - application: optics-and-cameras
    device: Ytterbium-doped fibre ring laser, linearly polarized, single longitudinal mode, at 1064 nm, for LISA
    example: NASA Goddard developed a Yb-doped fibre ring laser with single longitudinal-mode output at 1064 nm for LISA and other space applications. The gain fibre is a doped glass, not the metal, and the paper is a laboratory development. It does not report a flight.
    source: lisa-yb-laser-arxiv
    where: Abstract; introduction paragraph on the Yb-doped fibre ring laser
  - application: structures
    device: Alloying addition in stainless steel
    example: Wikipedia says ytterbium is added to stainless steel to improve grain refinement, strength and other mechanical properties. This is an industrial use and not a space use.
    source: wikipedia-yb
    where: Uses section, stainless steel paragraph
supply:
  - subject: Rare earths (ytterbium is not reported separately by USGS)
    abundance: About 3 mg/kg in the Earth's crust (Wikipedia, which also gives an average of 3 parts per million)
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 69.2
        year: 2025
      - country: United States
        share_percent: 13.1
        year: 2025
      - country: Australia
        share_percent: 7.4
        year: 2025
      - country: Burma
        share_percent: 5.6
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: 'USGS: limited quantities of rare earths were recovered from batteries, permanent magnets and fluorescent lamps.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: substitutes are available for many rare-earth applications but generally are less effective.'
    source: usgs-ree-2026
    where: 'World Mine Production table, 2025 (world total 390,000 t, rounded; shares calculated by Space Mushroom from China 270,000, United States 51,000, Australia 29,000 and Burma 22,000). Recycling and Substitutes sections. Abundance: Wikipedia Occurrence section.'
  - subject: Heavy rare-earth compounds and metals, including ytterbium
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 86
        year: 2024
      - country: Germany
        share_percent: 4
        year: 2024
      - country: Chile
        share_percent: 4
        year: 2024
      - country: Republic of Korea
        share_percent: 3
        year: 2024
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: 'USGS: small quantities of heavy rare earths were recovered from permanent magnets.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: substitutes are available for some applications but are generally less effective. Light rare earths can substitute for heavy rare earths in several applications.'
    source: usgs-heavy-ree-2026
    where: 'Import Sources (2021–24), ytterbium compounds and metals: China 86%, Germany 4%, Chile 4%, Republic of Korea 3%, other 3%; the year column shows the end of the 2021 to 2024 range. Net import reliance for heavy rare-earth compounds and metals is 100 % in 2025e, from the Salient Statistics table.'
  - subject: Ytterbium oxide price and export controls
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: ''
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-heavy-ree-2026
    where: 'Salient Statistics, price row Ytterbium oxide, 99.99% minimum, 15 dollars per kg in 2025e (14 in 2024). Events, Trends and Issues: in October 2025 China expanded its rare-earth export controls to include ytterbium, and in November it suspended the October controls for one year (USGS light and heavy chapters).'
documents:
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-rare-earths.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths (Heavy)'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-rare-earths-heavy.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'Wikipedia: Ytterbium'
    type: database
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium
    year: 2026
  - title: PubChem compound record for ytterbium (CID 23992), including ECHA C&L Inventory classification
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ytterbium
    year: 2026
  - title: Ytterbium pellets, 99.9 % (Goodfellow product datasheet)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/ytterbium-pellets-1000220085
  - title: 'WebElements: Ytterbium, physical properties (University of Sheffield)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/webelements/ytterbium/physics.html
  - title: 'Safety data sheet: Ytterbium (metal powder), Trace Sciences International'
    type: sds
    url: https://tracesciences.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ytterbium-metal-powder-SDS.pdf
    year: 2025
  - title: 'Safety data sheet: Ytterbium powder, Stanford Advanced Materials (revised 29/12/2022)'
    type: sds
    url: https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121476-1098-ytterbium-metal-powder-sds.pdf
    year: 2022
  - title: Fiber laser development for LISA (arXiv 1003.3687, NASA Goddard)
    type: paper
    url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1003.3687
    year: 2010
  - title: In Situ Growth of a Yb2O3 Layer for Sublimation Suppression for Yb14MnSb11 Thermoelectric Material for Space Power Applications (J. Electron. Mater., 2012, NASA Glenn)
    type: paper
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20120012922/downloads/20120012922.pdf
    year: 2012
gaps:
  - 'Heavy and light rare earths: the USGS chapters report rare earths and heavy rare earths as groups, so the producer shares for ytterbium are for all rare earths. Yb-specific mine output and reserves were not found in the sources read.'
  - 'Critical-mineral listing: the USGS 2025 critical minerals list and the EU critical raw materials list were not opened for ytterbium, so critical_lists is empty. The USGS heavy chapter does not print a critical-mineral status.'
  - 'Space flight of ytterbium metal: no flown ytterbium metal part was found. The LISA fibre laser is a laboratory development. The Yb14MnSb11 thermoelectric material (JPL and NASA Glenn, 2012) is a compound, not the metal, and it was studied as a candidate for radioisotope generators. Its sublimation rate at 1000 °C was about three orders of magnitude above the target, and the 2012 paper does not show a flight. The paper is cited as context only, and no property or use row uses it.'
  - 'Uses not entered: the Wikipedia uses of Yb-169 in portable X-ray sources, Yb-171 ions as trapped-ion qubits, ytterbium in stress gauges, and a proposed magnesium replacement in infrared decoy flares do not fit the listed application values or a space use. They are not entered.'
  - 'Density: three values differ, 6.977 g/cm3 (Goodfellow, 20 °C), 6.97 g/cm3 (Samat, 20 °C), 6.54 g/cm3 (Trace Sciences, 25 °C) and 6570 kg/m3 (WebElements, no temperature). Wikipedia gives 6.967 g/cm3 at 20 °C. All are entered with their conditions.'
  - 'Bulk modulus: the Goodfellow value of 13.5 GPa conflicts with the 30.5 GPa (Wikipedia, beta form) and 31 GPa (WebElements) values. All three are entered.'
  - Electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity differ by about 11 % and 15 % between the supplier and Wikipedia figures. Both are entered with their conditions.
  - Vickers hardness is entered under the new name vickers_hardness, because the property file has no canonical name for it. The hardness is printed in MPa by WebElements and as a range by Wikipedia. The Goodfellow Brinell figure has no unit printed and is not entered.
  - Mechanical strength is for a 99.9 % pellet, and its temper is not printed. No annealed, cast or wrought ytterbium strength was found in an opened source.
  - Corrosion data are qualitative (Wikipedia and SDSs). No measured weight-gain or corrosion-rate figure for ytterbium in air or water was found.
  - 'Fire medium conflict: the Trace Sciences SDS Section 5.2 lists water spray as a suitable extinguishing medium, while the Samat SDS says not to use water. The handling entry follows the Samat SDS, and the conflict should be checked with the supplier before any fire response.'
  - 'Hazard classification differs by source: PubChem records H250 (pyrophoric, 10 % of notifications), which the two SDSs do not give. The classes also vary by form (powder, pellet, chips). The form was not separated in every source.'
  - 'Environment: no source tested ytterbium metal in vacuum, radiation or thermal cycling, so no environment tags are set.'
  - The Ereztech SDS (YB2694) covers ytterbium(III) isopropoxide, a different compound, and was excluded. The ChemicalBook and American Elements pages were seen only as search results and were not read, and PubChem's experimental melting and density rows were not in the fetched record.
  - The Wikipedia page was read to its first 100,000 characters only. The remaining text was not read.
sources:
  wikipedia-yb:
    title: Ytterbium (Wikipedia)
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium
    year: 2026
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  pubchem-yb:
    title: 'PubChem compound record: Ytterbium (CID 23992), including ECHA C&L Inventory classification'
    id: CAS 7440-64-4
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23992/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem (NCBI), public domain; sections attributed to ECHA and others
  goodfellow-yb:
    title: Ytterbium pellets, 99.9 % (Goodfellow product datasheet)
    url: https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/ytterbium-pellets-1000220085
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)
  webelements-yb:
    title: 'WebElements: Ytterbium, physical properties (University of Sheffield)'
    url: https://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/webelements/ytterbium/physics.html
    kind: database
    license: WebElements, cited not reproduced
  usgs-ree-2026:
    title: 'Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths (USGS)'
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-rare-earths.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-heavy-ree-2026:
    title: 'Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths (Heavy) (USGS)'
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-rare-earths-heavy.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  trace-yb-sds:
    title: 'Safety data sheet: Ytterbium (metal powder), Trace Sciences International'
    url: https://tracesciences.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ytterbium-metal-powder-SDS.pdf
    year: 2025
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier safety data sheet, cited not reproduced
  samat-yb-sds:
    title: 'Safety data sheet: Ytterbium powder, Stanford Advanced Materials (revised 29/12/2022)'
    id: CAS 7440-64-4
    url: https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121476-1098-ytterbium-metal-powder-sds.pdf
    year: 2022
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier safety data sheet, cited not reproduced
  lisa-yb-laser-arxiv:
    title: Fiber laser development for LISA (arXiv 1003.3687, NASA Goddard)
    url: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1003.3687
    year: 2010
    kind: paper
    license: arXiv preprint, cited not reproduced
  nesbitt-yb14mnsb11-2012:
    title: In Situ Growth of a Yb2O3 Layer for Sublimation Suppression for Yb14MnSb11 Thermoelectric Material for Space Power Applications (Nesbitt, Opila, Nathal; J. Electron. Mater. 41(6), 2012)
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20120012922/downloads/20120012922.pdf
    year: 2012
    kind: paper
    license: NASA NTRS public record, cited not reproduced
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-26'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 35
  unreachable: 2
  caveats: 6
  note: 'Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. Unreachable: the PubChem web page (browser check block; the JSON record was read instead, and it has no experimental property rows), and the ChemicalBook MSDS (no PDF returned). Caveats: most physical values come from one supplier (Goodfellow), one encyclopedia (Wikipedia) and one data site (WebElements); supply shares are for all rare earths, not ytterbium; the density, bulk modulus and resistivity values conflict between sources; the mechanical strengths are for a 99.9 % pellet with the temper not printed; the fire medium conflicts between the two SDSs.'
story:
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      lead: The hazard is in the metal's form. The SDSs classify the powder as a flammable solid that can ignite in air, and the metal releases flammable gas with water.
      level: 1
      verdict: Form-dependent
      points:
        - label: Powder and fines
          line: The SDSs classify the metal as a flammable solid (H228), and PubChem records H250, catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air, in 10 % of its notifications.
        - label: Water
          line: Contact with water releases flammable gas that may ignite spontaneously (H260, Samat SDS).
        - label: Health
          line: The SDSs give harmful classes (H302, H312, H332) and irritation, and PubChem says the acute toxic rating is low. Its toxicity summary lists fibrogenic effects for rare-earth metals in general.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: 'The sources give four failure routes: a fire in powder, flammable gas on contact with water, surface oxidation in air, and violent reaction with acids and halogens.'
      points:
        - label: Fire
          line: Use special powder for metal fires, dry sand, dry chemical or alcohol-resistant foam (Samat and Trace SDSs). The Samat SDS says do not use water.
        - label: Air
          line: The metal tarnishes slowly in air, and fine metal oxidizes readily (Wikipedia). The powder is air sensitive (Samat SDS).
        - label: Acids and halogens
          line: Violent reactions are possible with strong acids and halogens (Trace SDS), and the metal dissolves quickly in acids (Wikipedia).
    - title: Handling and storage
      points:
        - label: Keep it dry
          line: Store under dry inert gas in a sealed container, away from water, acids, oxidizers and halogens (Samat and Trace SDSs).
        - label: Dust control
          line: Avoid forming dust and provide exhaust ventilation where dust is formed. Use a full-face particle respirator where a risk assessment calls for one (Trace SDS).
  why: Ytterbium is a rare-earth metal with several technical uses. One of them is the Yb-doped fibre laser, and NASA Goddard has built one at 1064 nm for the LISA mission. Its density of 6.977 g/cm3 and melting point of 819 °C are supplier values for a 99.9 % pellet. The metal itself is reactive, which makes handling its form (powder or fines) the main safety issue.
  uses:
    - where: Space optics research
      line: NASA Goddard built a linearly polarized Yb-doped fibre ring laser at 1064 nm for LISA and other space applications. The gain fibre is doped glass, and the paper is a laboratory development.
    - where: Stainless steel
      line: Wikipedia says ytterbium is added to stainless steel to improve grain refinement, strength and other mechanical properties.
  can_do:
    - label: Weight
      value: 6.977 g/cm3
      benchmark: density
      line: Density is 6.977 g/cm3 at 20 °C for a 99.9 % pellet (Goodfellow). Samat gives 6.97 g/cm3 at 20 °C, and Wikipedia gives 6.967 g/cm3 at 20 °C.
    - label: Melting
      value: 819 °C
      benchmark: melting_point
      line: Melting point is 819 °C for the pellet and the Samat powder. Wikipedia and the Trace SDS give 824 °C.
    - label: Heat conduction
      value: 32.9 W/(m·K)
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
      line: Thermal conductivity is 32.9 W/(m·K) from 0 to 100 °C (Goodfellow), and 38.5 W/(m·K) in the Wikipedia infobox.
    - label: Stiffness
      value: 17.8 GPa
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      line: The tensile modulus of the 99.9 % pellet is 17.8 GPa (Goodfellow). WebElements gives Young's modulus as 24 GPa.
  compare: Ytterbium is a rare-earth metal with a density of 6.977 g/cm3 for the Goodfellow pellet, and a melting point of 819 °C. Its thermal conductivity of 32.9 W/(m·K) is modest for a metal, and its tensile strength of 68.9 MPa for a pellet is low for a structural metal. It is also reactive in air, water and acids, so it needs dry, inert handling. No comparison profile is carried in this file, so the rows below list ytterbium values only.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Melting point
      benchmark: melting_point
    - label: Thermal conductivity
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
  recipe:
    line: Ytterbium is a single-element metal (Yb). Wikipedia says it is separated from the other rare earths by ion exchange or by reduction with sodium amalgam, and the oxide is reduced to metal by heating with lanthanum, aluminium, cerium or zirconium in high vacuum.
    parts:
      - name: Ytterbium
        symbol: Yb
        atoms: 1
        atomic_weight: 173.045
        role: The whole material. The Goodfellow pellet is 99.9 % pure, and the Samat and Trace SDSs describe the metal as a powder.
  handling:
    - Handle and store under inert gas, and keep away from moisture (Trace SDS, Samat SDS).
    - Keep containers sealed and store away from water, acids, oxidizers and halogens (Samat SDS).
    - Avoid forming dust, and use exhaust ventilation where dust is formed (Trace SDS).
    - Use special powder for metal fires, or dry sand, and do not use water (Samat SDS, Trace SDS).
  good_for:
    - 'Optical sources: an Yb-doped fibre ring laser at 1064 nm has been built for LISA (NASA Goddard, arXiv 1003.3687).'
    - 'Stainless steel: ytterbium is added to improve grain refinement and strength (Wikipedia).'
  watch_out:
    - Powder and fines are flammable, and PubChem records spontaneous ignition in air in 10 % of its notifications (PubChem, Trace SDS).
    - Water releases flammable gas that may ignite spontaneously (Samat SDS).
    - 'Supply is concentrated: China produced about 69 % of world rare-earth mine output in 2025, and China''s October 2025 export controls included ytterbium, which were then suspended for one year (USGS).'
    - Most figures come from one supplier, one encyclopedia and one data site, and the density and bulk modulus conflict between sources.
  verdict: Ytterbium is a rare-earth metal with a density of 6.977 g/cm3 and a melting point of 819 °C for a 99.9 % pellet. One documented technical use is the Yb-doped fibre laser that NASA Goddard built for LISA, and its space use is still laboratory work. The metal needs dry, inert handling, because powder ignites and water releases flammable gas.