spore: profile
id: vanadium
spore_version: 0.2
family: refractory-metals
name: Vanadium
abbreviation: V
role: refractory metal used mainly as an alloying element in steel and aerospace titanium alloys, and as the electrolyte element of vanadium redox flow batteries
category: metals
type: refractory-metals
summary: |
  Vanadium (V, atomic number 23) is a soft, very ductile, body-centred cubic metal with a density of 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C and a melting point of 1910 °C (Stanford Advanced Materials SDS; Goodfellow). Most of it is used as an alloying element: the USGS says metallurgical use accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025, and no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys. Its main hazard is fire: fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric, and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C in air (Goodfellow).
best_for: 'Alloying steel and aerospace titanium: no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys (USGS 2026)'
weakest_at: 'Fire and oxidation: fine powder is pyrophoric and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C in air, and the oxide V2O5 is toxic (Goodfellow)'
identity:
  formula: V (element, atomic number 23)
  cas: 7440-62-2
  source: sds-stanford-v
  where: Section 1 Product Name and CAS
  designations: []
tags:
  environments: []
  stresses: []
  applications:
    - structures
    - batteries
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, vanadium at 20 °C
    value: 6.11
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      form: element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)
    method: Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS, density row
    status: ground
    source: sds-stanford-v
    where: Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Density at 20 °C (68 °F)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, vanadium at 200 °C
    value: 6.1
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 200 °C
      unit_in_source: g/cc
    method: Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Density (g/cc at 200ºC)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, vanadium
    value: 1910
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)
    method: Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS
    status: ground
    source: sds-stanford-v
    where: Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Melting point/range 1910 °C (3470 °F)
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, commercial vanadium
    value: 1900
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: commercial electron-beam-melted ingot, value as printed
    method: Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    note: The Goodfellow page prints 1,910 °C and the SDS prints 1910 °C; the ATI value is rounded to 1900 °C.
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Melting Point 1900ºC
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, vanadium
    value: 3407
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)
    method: Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS
    status: ground
    source: sds-stanford-v
    where: Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Boiling point/range 3407 °C (6165 °F)
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, commercial vanadium
    value: 3400
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: commercial electron-beam-melted ingot, value as printed
    method: Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Boiling Point 3400ºC
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, vanadium
    value: 30.7
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the row
      unit_in_source: W/m·K
    method: Value printed in the Goodfellow vanadium material page, Thermal Conductivity row
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Thermal Conductivity row, value 30.7 W/m·K
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, vanadium
    value: 128
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated in the row
    method: Value printed in the Goodfellow vanadium material page, Young's Modulus row
    status: ground
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Young's Modulus row, value 128 GPa
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, vanadium
    value: 8.3
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 23 °C to 100 °C
      unit_in_source: 8.3 x 10-6 per ºC
    method: Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion per ºC, 23º to 100ºC
  - benchmark: poissons_ratio
    label: Poisson's ratio, vanadium
    value: 0.36
    unit: '-'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: typical value as printed in the datasheet, no temperature stated
    method: Typical value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Mechanical Properties (typical)
    status: ground
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Mechanical Properties (typical) section, row Poisson's Ratio 0.36
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, annealed vanadium sheet (typical)
    value: 35
    value_high: 60
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: annealed sheet
      gauge: 2 inch gauge length
      basis: typical range as printed
    method: Typical range printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Mechanical Properties (typical)
    status: ground
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Mechanical Properties (typical) section, row Elongation, annealed sheet, % in 2 inches 35-60
  - benchmark: recrystallization_temperature
    label: Recrystallization temperature, commercial vanadium
    value: 800
    value_high: 1010
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: range as printed in the datasheet
    method: Range printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    note: Custom benchmark name, not in the property canon.
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Recrystallization Temperature ºC 800º to 1010ºC
  - benchmark: superconducting_transition_temperature
    label: Superconducting transition temperature, vanadium
    value: -268.7
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: superconducting transition, Tc as printed
    method: Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table
    status: ground
    note: Custom benchmark name, not in the property canon.
    source: ati-v-tds
    where: Physical Properties table, row Superconductivity (Tc) -268.7ºC
corrosion:
  - environment: Air at room temperature, bulk metal
    headline: Bulk vanadium oxidises slowly in air at room temperature.
    effect: The Goodfellow corrosion row says bulk V oxidizes slowly in air at room temperature but ignites above about 600 °C.
    rating: low
    conditions:
      basis: room temperature, air; no exposure duration printed
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Corrosion Resistance row, Notes
  - environment: Air above about 600 °C, bulk metal
    headline: Bulk vanadium ignites above about 600 °C.
    effect: The Goodfellow corrosion row gives the ignition of bulk V as above about 600 °C in air. The surface oxide is V2O5, which is the thermodynamically stable oxide in air (Goodfellow, Surface Oxide row).
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      basis: air; ignition temperature as printed, approximately 600 °C
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Corrosion Resistance row, Notes; Surface Oxide row
  - environment: Air, fine vanadium powder
    headline: Fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric.
    effect: The Goodfellow corrosion row says fine V powder is pyrophoric. The SDS classes vanadium powder as a Category 1 flammable solid (H228).
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      form: fine powder
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Corrosion Resistance row, Notes
  - environment: Alkalis and dilute acids
    headline: Vanadium resists alkalis and dilute acids.
    effect: The Goodfellow corrosion row says the metal is good in oxidizing environments, forms a stable V2O5 surface oxide, and is resistant to alkalis and dilute acids. It notes that its corrosion resistance in alkalis is better than most transition metals.
    rating: low
    conditions:
      basis: qualitative statement; no concentration or temperature printed
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Corrosion Resistance row, Value/Behavior and Notes
  - environment: Hydrofluoric acid and hot concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid
    headline: Vanadium is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and by hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid.
    effect: The Goodfellow corrosion row says the metal is attacked by HF and hot concentrated H2SO4 and HNO3.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      basis: qualitative statement; no concentration or temperature printed
    source: goodfellow-v
    where: Corrosion Resistance row, Value/Behavior
  - environment: Acids and oxidising agents, storage
    headline: The SDS lists acids and oxidising agents as incompatible with vanadium powder.
    effect: The SDS lists acids and oxidizing agents as incompatible materials and advises storing the powder away from oxidizing agents. No corrosion rate was printed.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      basis: powder SDS; no test data
    source: sds-stanford-v
    where: Storage section and Incompatible materials section
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: Vanadium powder (SDS product, CAS 7440-62-2) is classified Flam. Sol. 1 (H228, flammable solid) with signal word Danger, and also carries H315 (skin irritation), H319 (serious eye irritation) and H335 (may cause respiratory irritation).
      ghs:
        - H228
        - H315
        - H319
        - H335
      source: sds-stanford-v
      where: Section 2 Hazards identification, Hazard statements list and Signal word Danger
    - text: 'PubChem aggregates ECHA C&L notifications for elemental vanadium: 431 of 452 company reports state that the substance does not meet GHS hazard criteria, and the hazard statement entry reads Not Classified.'
      ghs: []
      source: pubchem-vanadium
      where: GHS Classification section, aggregated information from 6 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory
    - text: Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), the oxide that forms on the metal, is toxic, with a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow).
      ghs: []
      source: goodfellow-v
      where: Surface Oxide row, Notes
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Ignition of fine vanadium powder
      trigger: Handling fine powder in air
      consequence: Fire, since the powder is pyrophoric (Goodfellow) and a Category 1 flammable solid (SDS). A fire releases toxic metal oxide fume.
      severity: high
      source: goodfellow-v
      where: Corrosion Resistance row, Notes
    - mode: Ignition of bulk metal in hot air
      trigger: Bulk vanadium exposed to air above about 600 °C
      consequence: Ignition of the bulk metal, with oxidation to V2O5 (Goodfellow).
      severity: high
      source: goodfellow-v
      where: Corrosion Resistance row, Notes; Surface Oxide row
    - mode: Toxic oxide fume and dust
      trigger: Fire, or heating of the metal or its oxide
      consequence: Toxic metal oxide fume is released in a fire (SDS). V2O5 has a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow).
      severity: moderate
      source: sds-stanford-v
      where: Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture, fire-fighting section
  side_effects: []
  handling:
    - text: Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames and hot surfaces, and avoid breathing dust (P210 and P261, SDS).
      source: sds-stanford-v
    - text: Store locked up (P405) and away from oxidizing agents and acids (SDS storage and incompatible materials sections).
      source: sds-stanford-v
    - text: Transport as UN3089, Metal powders, flammable, n.o.s. (Vanadium powder), class 4.1, packing group II (SDS transport section).
      source: sds-stanford-v
  mitigations: []
uses:
  - application: structures
    device: Vanadium alloying addition in iron and steel (ferrovanadium)
    example: The USGS 2026 summary says metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. vanadium consumption in 2025.
    source: usgs-mcs2026-vanadium
    where: Domestic Production and Use paragraph
  - application: structures
    device: Ti-6Al-4V aerospace titanium alloy, with vanadium as the beta stabilizer
    example: A NASA Tech Brief on the Materials Data Handbook for Ti-6Al-4V says vanadium is the beta stabilizer and that typical applications are aircraft and missile structures. The USGS says no acceptable substitute for vanadium is available for aerospace titanium alloys.
    source: nasa-tb-ti64
    where: Tech Brief text, first column, paragraph on the alloy and Typical applications paragraph
  - application: batteries
    device: Vanadium redox flow battery electrolyte
    example: The USGS says vanadium redox flow batteries were used in large-scale energy storage systems in 2025. A 2023 review gives an operating range of 10 to 40 °C for VRFBs, limited by electrolyte stability.
    source: vrfb-review-tian-2023
    where: Abstract and Section 2.1 Effect of Temperature Variation on the Stability
supply:
  - subject: Vanadium (mine production, reserves and resources)
    abundance: 'USGS 2026: world resources of vanadium exceed 63 million tons, and most vanadium is recovered as a byproduct or coproduct. ATI Table 1 gives 150 ppm V in the earth''s crust (CRC Handbook, Weast).'
    producers:
      - country: China (mine production 2025e, 82,000 t of 110,000 t world total)
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia (mine production 2025e, 21,000 t)
        year: 2025
      - country: Brazil (mine production 2025e, 5,300 t)
        year: 2025
      - country: South Africa (mine production 2025e, 5,000 t)
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: 'USGS: recycling is mainly the reprocessing of vanadium catalysts into new catalysts, and the quantity recycled is uncertain.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: manganese, molybdenum, niobium, titanium and tungsten can partly replace vanadium as steel alloying elements, and platinum and nickel can replace vanadium compounds as catalysts. No acceptable substitute is available for aerospace titanium alloys.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-vanadium
    where: Events, Trends, and Issues; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); World Resources paragraph; Recycling; Substitutes
  - subject: Vanadium (United States import dependence and sources)
    abundance: 'USGS 2026: net import reliance was 41 % of apparent consumption in 2025e, down from 46 % in 2024. World reserves are 21,000 thousand metric tons.'
    producers:
      - country: Canada (ferrovanadium imports, 2021 to 2024)
        share_percent: 50
        year: 2024
      - country: Austria (ferrovanadium imports, 2021 to 2024)
        share_percent: 35
        year: 2024
      - country: Brazil (vanadium pentoxide imports, 2021 to 2024)
        share_percent: 47
        year: 2024
      - country: South Africa (vanadium pentoxide imports, 2021 to 2024)
        share_percent: 43
        year: 2024
    critical_lists: []
    source: usgs-mcs2026-vanadium
    where: Salient Statistics table (net import reliance 2025e); Import Sources (2021 to 2024); World Mine Production and Reserves table
documents:
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-vanadium.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials
    type: sds
    url: https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf
    year: 2023
  - title: Goodfellow, Vanadium material data page
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium
  - title: ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf
    year: 2014
  - title: NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, Materials Data Handbook on Titanium 6Al-4V
    type: report
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730000372/downloads/19730000372.pdf
    year: 1973
  - title: NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, vanadium
    type: database
    url: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=V&all=all&ascii=html
  - title: Tian et al., A Review of Electrolyte Additives in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries, Materials 16(13), 4582
    type: paper
    url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10342886/
    year: 2023
  - title: PubChem compound record for vanadium (CID 23990), GHS classification
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23990/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification
gaps:
  - 'Electrical resistivity: Goodfellow prints 205 nΩ·m at 20 °C and ATI prints 24.8 to 26.0 microhm-cm at 20 °C. Neither unit is in the site unit registry, so neither value is entered.'
  - 'Specific heat: ATI prints 0.119 cal/g/°C over 32 to 100 °C. The calorie unit is not in the site unit registry, so the value is not entered.'
  - 'Tensile and yield strength, and Young''s modulus at room temperature: ATI prints annealed sheet values in psi (tensile 29,000 to 35,000 psi, yield 18,000 to 25,000 psi, modulus 18 to 20 x 10^6 psi). psi is not in the site unit registry, so these are not entered.'
  - 'Hardness: ATI prints Brinell 60 for electron beam ingot. No canonical hardness property exists in the property canon, so it is not entered.'
  - 'Lattice parameter of body-centred cubic vanadium: Goodfellow prints a = 3.028 Å at room temperature. Angstrom is not in the unit registry, so it is not entered.'
  - 'Atomic weight: not a property-canon benchmark; the NIST value 50.9415 is used in the recipe parts only.'
  - 'Thermal neutron absorption cross section (4.7 barns, ATI) and electronic work function (3.79 eV, ATI) are not entered: barn and eV are not in the unit registry.'
  - No UNS, ASTM, EN, DIN, JIS or AMS designation for unalloyed vanadium was printed in a source read in this run, so designations is empty.
  - 'Critical-mineral list status: the USGS 2026 vanadium summary read in this run prints no critical-mineral list, and the EU critical raw materials list was not opened, so critical_lists is empty.'
  - No atomic-oxygen erosion yield, outgassing, total mass loss or radiation test for vanadium in space was found in the sources read.
  - 'Oxidation kinetics of bulk vanadium at 200 to 600 °C: no quantitative source was found. The only oxidation statements come from the Goodfellow page and the SDS.'
  - 'Production process steps beyond aluminothermic reduction and electron beam melting: not read from a primary source.'
  - 'Mine production shares by country are not computed in this profile: the USGS prints tonnes, and the percentages were not printed in the source.'
  - 'Media: no public-domain image of vanadium metal was checked in this run, so media is empty.'
sources:
  usgs-mcs2026-vanadium:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium, February 2026
    id: USGS MCS 2026, prepared by Désirée E. Polyak
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-vanadium.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  sds-stanford-v:
    title: Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials, date revised 02/02/2023
    id: CAS 7440-62-2, EC 231-171-1
    url: https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf
    year: 2023
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)
  goodfellow-v:
    title: Goodfellow, Vanadium material page (general properties, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, surface oxide)
    id: Goodfellow material page, metals, vanadium
    url: https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)
  ati-v-tds:
    title: ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014
    id: ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh
    url: https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf
    year: 2014
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  nasa-tb-ti64:
    title: NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, Materials Data Handbook on Titanium 6Al-4V, Marshall Space Flight Center
    id: NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, October 1973
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730000372/downloads/19730000372.pdf
    year: 1973
    kind: report
    license: NASA public document
  nist-atomic-weights-v:
    title: NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, vanadium
    id: NIST standard atomic weight 50.9415(1)
    url: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=V&all=all&ascii=html
    kind: database
    license: US government data
  vrfb-review-tian-2023:
    title: Tian et al., A Review of Electrolyte Additives in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries, Materials (Basel) 2023, 16(13), 4582
    id: DOI 10.3390/ma16134582
    url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10342886/
    year: 2023
    kind: paper
    license: open access, CC BY (PubMed Central)
  pubchem-vanadium:
    title: 'PubChem compound record: Vanadium (CID 23990), GHS Classification section'
    id: CID 23990, ECHA C&L Inventory aggregated notifications
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23990/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification
    kind: database
    license: PubChem (NCBI), public domain; sections attributed to ECHA
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-26'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 13
  unreachable: 0
  caveats: 4
  note: Values were read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry (PDFs extracted with pdftotext). Values come from a powder SDS, a supplier material page and a 2014 ATI typical-value datasheet, so they are not a single certified grade. The 1910 versus 1900 °C melting point and 3407 versus 3400 °C boiling point are printed differently by two sources and both are kept with their conditions. Electrical resistivity, specific heat and the psi-based strengths are left as gaps because their units are not in the site registry.
story:
  recipe:
    line: Vanadium is a single-element metal (V, atomic number 23, body-centred cubic per ATI). Commercial vanadium is made by aluminothermic reduction of high-purity V2O5 with aluminium, 10Al + 3V2O5 gives 6V + 5Al2O3, with excess aluminium added to lower the oxygen content, followed by electron beam melting to raise the purity (ATI datasheet).
    parts:
      - name: Vanadium
        symbol: V
        atoms: 1
        atomic_weight: 50.9415
        role: The base metal. Density 6.11 g/cm3 and melting point 1910 °C (SDS), and it is a soft, very ductile metal (ATI).
      - name: Aluminium
        symbol: Al
        share_note: excess over stoichiometry, not quantified in the datasheet
        role: Reductant for V2O5 in the aluminothermic step, and oxygen scavenger that lowers the oxygen content of the reduced metal (ATI).
      - name: Oxygen
        symbol: O
        share_note: 350 ppm typical in commercial vanadium (ATI Table 2)
        role: Residual interstitial impurity that the excess aluminium is added to lower (ATI).
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      lead: The powder is a flammable solid in the supplier SDS, and it irritates skin, eyes and the airways. The oxide is toxic.
      level: 2
      verdict: Flammable powder and toxic oxide, handle with the usual…
      points:
        - label: Vanadium powder
          line: The SDS classes vanadium powder as Flam. Sol. 1 (H228) with signal word Danger, and also gives H315, H319 and H335.
        - label: Vanadium pentoxide
          line: Goodfellow gives a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 for V2O5, the oxide that forms on the metal.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: The failure routes are fire from fine powder, ignition of bulk metal above about 600 °C, and toxic oxide fume in a fire.
      points:
        - label: Pyrophoric powder
          line: Goodfellow says fine V powder is pyrophoric.
        - label: Bulk ignition
          line: Bulk V oxidises slowly in air at room temperature but ignites above about 600 °C (Goodfellow).
  why: Vanadium is a soft, ductile metal whose main value is alloying. The USGS says metallurgical use was more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025, and no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys. Its density of 6.11 g/cm3 and melting point of 1910 °C come from the SDS.
  uses:
    - where: Steel
      line: Vanadium is mainly an alloying agent for iron and steel. The USGS says metallurgical use accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025.
    - where: Aerospace titanium
      line: Vanadium is the beta stabilizer in Ti-6Al-4V, used in aircraft and missile structures (NASA Tech Brief, 1973).
    - where: Energy storage
      line: Vanadium redox flow batteries were used in large-scale energy storage in 2025 (USGS). A 2023 review gives an operating range of 10 to 40 °C, limited by electrolyte stability.
  can_do:
    - label: Carry heat
      value: 30.7 W/(m·K)
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
      line: Goodfellow prints a thermal conductivity of 30.7 W/m·K for vanadium, without a temperature.
    - label: Weight
      value: 6.11 g/cm3
      benchmark: density
      line: The SDS prints a density of 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C. ATI prints 6.1 g/cc at 200 °C.
    - label: Melting
      value: 1910 °C
      benchmark: melting_point
      line: The SDS prints a melting point of 1910 °C. ATI prints 1900 °C for commercial vanadium.
    - label: Stiffness
      value: 128 GPa
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      line: Goodfellow prints a Young's modulus of 128 GPa for vanadium.
    - label: Ductility
      value: 35 to 60 %
      benchmark: elongation
      line: ATI prints a typical elongation of 35 to 60 % for annealed sheet, measured in 2 inches.
  compare: The three rows below use the SDS and ATI values for density, melting point and thermal conductivity. The SDS gives 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C and 1910 °C, and ATI gives 6.1 g/cc at 200 °C and 1900 °C for commercial metal. Goodfellow gives 30.7 W/m·K thermal conductivity without a temperature. The two melting points differ by 10 °C and both are kept with their conditions.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Melting point
      benchmark: melting_point
    - label: Thermal conductivity
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
  handling:
    - Keep vanadium powder away from heat, sparks and open flames, and avoid breathing dust (SDS P210 and P261).
    - Store locked up, away from oxidizing agents and acids (SDS P405 and storage section).
    - Treat the oxide V2O5 as toxic, with a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow).
  good_for:
    - 'Alloying: vanadium is used in steel and in Ti-6Al-4V aerospace titanium, and the USGS says no acceptable substitute exists for aerospace titanium alloys.'
    - 'Structural strength in titanium: Ti-6Al-4V uses vanadium as the beta stabilizer (NASA Tech Brief).'
    - 'Energy storage: vanadium electrolytes are used in redox flow batteries, which the USGS reports in use for large-scale storage.'
  watch_out:
    - 'Fire: fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric and the powder is a Category 1 flammable solid (Goodfellow, SDS).'
    - 'Oxidation: bulk vanadium ignites above about 600 °C in air (Goodfellow).'
    - 'Supply: China produced 82,000 t of about 110,000 t of world mine output in 2025e, and the United States had 41 % net import reliance (USGS 2026).'
    - No space outgassing, erosion yield or radiation data for vanadium were found in the sources read.
  verdict: Vanadium is a soft, ductile metal whose main value is as an alloying element for steel and aerospace titanium, with 6.11 g/cm3 density and 1910 °C melting point. Its powder is pyrophoric and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C, and its oxide is toxic. Supply is concentrated in China, and this profile has no sourced space-environment test data.
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