spore: profile
id: tungsten-heavy-alloy
spore_version: 0.2
family: refractory-metals
name: Tungsten heavy alloy
abbreviation: WHA
role: dense radiation shield, counterweight and mass material
category: metals
type: refractory-metals
summary: |
  Tungsten heavy alloys (WHA) are liquid-phase sintered composites of 90 to 97 wt % tungsten with a nickel-iron or nickel-copper binder. Plansee sells them as Densimet (Ni-Fe, weakly ferromagnetic) and Inermet (Ni-Cu, paramagnetic). The standard grades have nominal densities of 17.0 to 18.5 g/cm3. ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4 set minimum tensile strength at 758 MPa down to 689 MPa, with a minimum yield strength of 517 MPa in every class. PubChem classifies nickel, the binder metal, as a skin sensitiser and suspected carcinogen.
best_for: Dense, stiff parts that must absorb X-rays and gamma rays, or sit as counterweights in a small volume (density 16.85 to 18.85 g/cc across ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4)
weakest_at: 'Ductility falls as tungsten rises: minimum elongation is 2 % in class 4. The binder contains nickel, a hazardous substance. No vacuum or flight result was found.'
identity:
  formula: 'Tungsten heavy alloy: 90 to 97 wt % W with a Ni-Fe or Ni-Cu binder (Plansee range table; ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4)'
  source: plansee-wmmc
  where: Range of materials for standard products table, columns W (%) and Remainder; class column gives ASTM B777/07 class 1 to 4
  designations:
    - system: ASTM
      code: B777
      note: Classes 1 to 4, 90 to 97 % W
      source: gsalloy-astm-b777
      where: Page title and mechanical properties table heading
    - system: AMS
      code: AMS-T-21014
      note: Plansee states compliance
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Production process section, compliance sentence
    - system: AMS
      code: '7725'
      note: rev E, Plansee states compliance
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Production process section, compliance sentence
    - system: Trade name
      code: D170
      note: Densimet 170, Ni-Fe, 90 % W, ASTM B777 class 1
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row DENSIMET 170
    - system: Trade name
      code: D176
      note: Densimet 176, Ni-Fe, 92.5 % W, ASTM B777 class 2
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row DENSIMET 176
    - system: Trade name
      code: D180
      note: Densimet 180, Ni-Fe, 95 % W, ASTM B777 class 3
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row DENSIMET 180
    - system: Trade name
      code: D185
      note: Densimet 185, Ni-Fe, 97 % W, ASTM B777 class 4
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row DENSIMET 185
    - system: Trade name
      code: IT170
      note: Inermet 170, Ni-Cu, 90 % W, ASTM B777 class 1
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 170
    - system: Trade name
      code: IT176
      note: Inermet 176, Ni-Cu, 92.5 % W, ASTM B777 class 2
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 176
    - system: Trade name
      code: IT180
      note: Inermet 180, Ni-Cu, 95 % W, ASTM B777 class 3
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 180
tags:
  applications:
    - radiation-shielding
    - mechanisms
    - structures
  environments: []
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ASTM B777 class 1 (90 % W)
    value: 16.85
    value_high: 17.25
    bound: range
    unit: g/cc
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 1
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 90
      binder: not stated on the page
    method: Range printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 1, column Density (g/cc)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ASTM B777 class 2 (92.5 % W)
    value: 17.15
    value_high: 17.85
    bound: range
    unit: g/cc
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 2
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 92.5
      binder: not stated on the page
    method: Range printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 2, column Density (g/cc)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ASTM B777 class 3 (95 % W)
    value: 17.75
    value_high: 18.35
    bound: range
    unit: g/cc
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 3
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 95
      binder: not stated on the page
    method: Range printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 3, column Density (g/cc)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, ASTM B777 class 4 (97 % W)
    value: 18.25
    value_high: 18.85
    bound: range
    unit: g/cc
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 4
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 97
      binder: not stated on the page
    method: Range printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 4, column Density (g/cc)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Nominal density, INERMET 170 (Ni-Cu, 90 % W)
    value: 17
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 170 (IT170)
      binder: Ni, Cu
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 90
    method: Nominal density printed in the manufacturer range table
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 170, column Nominal density
  - benchmark: density
    label: Nominal density, INERMET 176 (Ni-Cu, 92.5 % W)
    value: 17.6
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 176 (IT176)
      binder: Ni, Cu
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 92.5
    method: Nominal density printed in the manufacturer range table
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 176, column Nominal density
  - benchmark: density
    label: Nominal density, INERMET 180 (Ni-Cu, 95 % W)
    value: 18
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 180 (IT180)
      binder: Ni, Cu
      nominal_tungsten_percent: 95
    method: Nominal density printed in the manufacturer range table
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Range of materials for standard products table, row INERMET 180, column Nominal density
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, ASTM B777 class 1 (minimum)
    value: 758
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 1
      basis: minimum value; printed as 110 ksi / 758 MPa
      form: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 1, column Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi/MPa)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, ASTM B777 class 2 (minimum)
    value: 758
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 2
      basis: minimum value; printed as 110 ksi / 758 MPa
      form: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 2, column Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi/MPa)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, ASTM B777 class 3 (minimum)
    value: 724
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 3
      basis: minimum value; printed as 105 ksi / 724 MPa
      form: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 3, column Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi/MPa)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, ASTM B777 class 4 (minimum)
    value: 689
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 4
      basis: minimum value; printed as 100 ksi / 689 MPa
      form: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 4, column Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi/MPa)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength at 0.2 % offset, all classes (minimum)
    value: 517
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      classes: ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4
      basis: minimum value; printed as 75 ksi / 517 MPa
      offset: 0.2 %
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, column Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset (ksi/MPa), all four rows
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, ASTM B777 class 1 (minimum)
    value: 5
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 1
      basis: minimum value from the main table; see note on the nonmagnetic footnote
      test_length: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    note: The same page's nonmagnetic footnote gives 2 % minimum for classes 1 and 2, which conflicts with this main-table value of 5 %. Both are recorded as printed; check the standard before design use.
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 1, column Elongation (%)
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, ASTM B777 class 2 (minimum)
    value: 5
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 2
      basis: minimum value from the main table
      test_length: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    note: The nonmagnetic footnote gives 2 % minimum for class 2, against 5 % in the main table.
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 2, column Elongation (%)
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, ASTM B777 class 3 (minimum)
    value: 3
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 3
      basis: minimum value from the main table
      test_length: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    note: The nonmagnetic footnote gives 1 % minimum for class 3, against 3 % in the main table.
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 3, column Elongation (%)
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, ASTM B777 class 4 (minimum)
    value: 2
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 4
      basis: minimum value from the main table
      test_length: not stated on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in the mechanical properties table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 4, column Elongation (%)
  - benchmark: hardness
    label: Hardness, ASTM B777 class 1 (maximum)
    value: 32
    unit: HRC
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 1
      scale: Rockwell C
      limit: maximum, as printed (Rockwell 'C' max)
    method: Maximum value printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 1, column Hardness (Rockwell 'C' max)
  - benchmark: hardness
    label: Hardness, ASTM B777 class 2 (maximum)
    value: 33
    unit: HRC
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 2
      scale: Rockwell C
      limit: maximum, as printed (Rockwell 'C' max)
    method: Maximum value printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 2, column Hardness (Rockwell 'C' max)
  - benchmark: hardness
    label: Hardness, ASTM B777 class 3 (maximum)
    value: 34
    unit: HRC
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 3
      scale: Rockwell C
      limit: maximum, as printed (Rockwell 'C' max)
    method: Maximum value printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 3, column Hardness (Rockwell 'C' max)
  - benchmark: hardness
    label: Hardness, ASTM B777 class 4 (maximum)
    value: 35
    unit: HRC
    scope: material
    conditions:
      class: ASTM B777 class 4
      scale: Rockwell C
      limit: maximum, as printed (Rockwell 'C' max)
    method: Maximum value printed in the composition, density and hardness table of the supplier page
    status: ground
    source: gsalloy-astm-b777
    where: Composition, Density, and Hardness Properties table, row Class 4, column Hardness (Rockwell 'C' max)
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, DENSIMET 170 (typical)
    value: 340
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: DENSIMET 170 (D170), Ni-Fe
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column D170
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, INERMET 170 (typical)
    value: 330
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 170 (IT170), Ni-Cu
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column IT170
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, INERMET 176 (typical)
    value: 350
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 176 (IT176), Ni-Cu
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column IT176
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, DENSIMET 180 (typical)
    value: 380
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: DENSIMET 180 (D180), Ni-Fe
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column D180
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, INERMET 180 (typical)
    value: 360
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: INERMET 180 (IT180), Ni-Cu
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column IT180
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, DENSIMET 185 (typical)
    value: 385
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: DENSIMET 185 (D185), Ni-Fe
      basis: typical value
    method: Typical value printed in the mechanical properties table of the manufacturer brochure
    status: ground
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: Properties of DENSIMET and INERMET, mechanical properties (typical values) table, row Young's modulus E [GPa], column D185
corrosion:
  - environment: Immersion in deionised water and in 0.6 M HCl, with electrochemical tests (Lu et al. 2018, W-Ni-Cu 90W-6Ni-4Cu and W-Ni-Fe 95W-3.5Ni-1.5Fe)
    headline: Both alloys corroded more slowly in deionised water than in dilute hydrochloric acid, and pH strongly controlled the rate.
    effect: Galvanic attack falls on the tungsten phase in the W-Ni-Cu alloy but on the binder in the W-Ni-Fe alloy. The abstract prints no corrosion current, corrosion rate or weight loss, so the rating is unknown.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      alloys: 90W-6Ni-4Cu and 95W-3.5Ni-1.5Fe, as printed (the page does not state wt %)
      basis: abstract page only; full text not available from the abstract view
      media: DI water and 0.6MHCl solution, as printed
    source: rmme-corrosion-2018
    where: Abstract
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: PubChem's GHS summary for nickel, the binder metal, lists H317 (may cause an allergic skin reaction), H351 (suspected of causing cancer) and H372 (causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure), with signal word Danger. The classification is for nickel as a substance, not for the finished alloy.
      ghs:
        - H317
        - H351
        - H372
      source: pubchem-nickel
      where: GHS Classification section, Hazard Statements and Signal (CID 935)
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Low ductility in the high-tungsten classes
      trigger: Loading past yield in class 4 (97 % W)
      consequence: The minimum elongation is 2 %, so the part deforms little before it fractures. The supplier page gives minimum values only and no fracture-toughness figure.
      severity: moderate
      source: gsalloy-astm-b777
      where: Mechanical Properties (Minimum Values) table, row Class 4, column Elongation (%)
  side_effects: []
  handling:
    - text: For turning Densimet and Inermet, the manufacturer gives cutting speed 60 to 140 m/min, feed 0.05 to 0.3 mm, depth up to 6 mm, and emulsion coolant.
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Machining of DENSIMET and INERMET, turning table
    - text: Plansee states the material is safe in terms of health and environment; the same document lists nickel-based binders, so the nickel hazard above still applies to dust and machining swarf.
      source: plansee-wmmc
      where: Densimet and Inermet properties list
  mitigations: []
uses:
  - application: radiation-shielding
    device: X-ray and gamma-ray shielding parts
    example: Plansee lists a high absorption capacity for X-rays and gamma rays among the properties of Densimet and Inermet.
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: DENSIMET and INERMET section, properties list
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Counterweights and ballast
    example: Wikipedia lists weights, counterweights and ballast keels for yachts among the applications that require high density.
    source: wikipedia-tungsten
    where: Applications, Niche uses section
  - application: structures
    device: Aerospace components
    example: Plansee names the aerospace field among the applications for Densimet and Inermet. No spaceflight part made from these grades was found in the sources read.
    source: plansee-wmmc
    where: DENSIMET and INERMET section, opening paragraph
supply:
  - subject: Tungsten (tungsten content of the alloy)
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 78.8
        year: 2025
      - country: Vietnam
        share_percent: 3.5
        year: 2025
      - country: Kazakhstan
        share_percent: 2.8
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 2.4
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (tungsten listed)
        listed: true
      - list: EU critical raw materials list (tungsten listed as critical)
        listed: true
    recycling: 'USGS: the estimated quantity of secondary tungsten produced and consumed in 2025 is withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Net import reliance was more than 50 % of apparent consumption in 2021 to 2025e.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: depleted uranium or lead for tungsten or tungsten alloys in applications requiring high density or the ability to shield radiation; depleted uranium alloys or hardened steel for armour-piercing projectiles.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-tungsten
    where: 'World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025 column: China 67,000; Vietnam 3,000; Kazakhstan 2,400; Russia 2,000; world total 85,000 t. Shares calculated by Space Mushroom against the 85,000 t total. Recycling; Substitutes'
  - subject: Nickel (binder metal)
    producers:
      - country: Indonesia
        share_percent: 66.7
        year: 2025
      - country: Philippines
        share_percent: 6.9
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 5.1
        year: 2025
      - country: Canada
        share_percent: 3.6
        year: 2025
      - country: New Caledonia
        share_percent: 3.6
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (nickel listed)
        listed: true
      - list: 'EU critical raw materials list: nickel is listed as strategic, not critical'
        listed: false
    recycling: 'USGS: nickel recovered from scrap accounted for approximately 60 % of apparent consumption in 2025.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments; low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels can substitute for some austenitic grades.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-nickel
    where: 'World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e column: Indonesia 2,600,000; Philippines 270,000; Russia 200,000; Canada 140,000; New Caledonia 140,000; world total 3,900,000 t. Shares calculated by Space Mushroom. Recycling; Substitutes'
documents:
  - title: Plansee, DENSIMET and INERMET tungsten heavy alloys, and other tungsten-based composites brochure (W-MMC, 09-2021)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://cdn.plansee-group.com/is/content/planseemedia/plansee/downloads/werkstoffe/W_MMC_Broschuere_Plansee_09-2021.pdf
    year: 2021
  - title: GS Alloy, ASTM B777 Tungsten Base High-Density Metal (class table)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://gsalloy.com/product/astm-b777-tungsten-high-density-metal/
  - title: 'PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Nickel
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Tungsten'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tungsten.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: Lu, Liu and Xiang, Corrosion Performance of W-Ni-Cu and W-Ni-Fe Alloys, Rare Metal Materials and Engineering 47(6)
    type: paper
    url: https://rmme.ijournals.cn/rmmeen/article/abstract/20171182
    year: 2018
gaps:
  - Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion for Densimet and Inermet are printed only as charts in the Plansee brochure (images), so no value was read and none is recorded.
  - 'Electrical conductivity or resistivity for the W-Ni-Fe and W-Ni-Cu grades: not printed as text on any page read.'
  - 'Binder ratio (Ni to Fe, or Ni to Cu) for each grade: not printed on any page read. Search snippets gave 7:3 and 8:2, but these were not read on a fetched page, so they are not recorded.'
  - ASTM B777 class to binder mapping is taken from the Plansee brochure table (class 1 = 90 % W, class 2 = 92.5 %, class 3 = 95 %, class 4 = 97 %), not from the standard text. The full ASTM B777 document was not read.
  - 'Salt water and salt mist corrosion: Batten et al. 1988 (INIS record) returned HTTP 402 and could not be read, so no value is recorded.'
  - 'Oxidation in hot air, outgassing, atomic-oxygen erosion and any vacuum or thermal-cycling result for WHA: none found in a readable source.'
  - No spaceflight use of a tungsten heavy alloy was found in the sources read. Radiation shielding and counterweight uses are general, not space-specific.
  - 'Failure risks beyond low ductility (fracture toughness, low-temperature brittleness, fatigue): not found for the Ni-Fe and Ni-Cu classes in a readable source.'
  - 'Crustal abundance of tungsten and nickel: not found in the sources checked, so abundance is not recorded.'
  - Elastic modulus for the D176/W column of the Plansee table is ambiguous (the column header prints D176/W) and was left out.
  - Plansee DENAL (defence grades, 91 to 92 % W with cobalt in some grades) and DENSIMET 188 (98.5 % W) are outside the 90 to 97 % W scope and are not profiled here. DENSIMET D2M (Ni-Mo-Fe binder) is not an ASTM B777 Ni-Fe or Ni-Cu grade and is not listed.
  - 'Torrey Hills high-density data page: the table is garbled in extraction, and the column alignment could not be confirmed, so it is not used.'
  - Hazard data cover nickel only (PubChem). No tungsten-heavy-alloy SDS or dust-exposure limit was read in this run.
sources:
  gsalloy-astm-b777:
    title: GS Alloy, ASTM B777 Tungsten Base High-Density Metal
    url: https://gsalloy.com/product/astm-b777-tungsten-high-density-metal/
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier web page, linked not reproduced
  plansee-wmmc:
    title: 'Plansee, W-MMC brochure: DENSIMET, INERMET, DENAL, WCu and SPARKAL tungsten-based composites (09-2021)'
    url: https://cdn.plansee-group.com/is/content/planseemedia/plansee/downloads/werkstoffe/W_MMC_Broschuere_Plansee_09-2021.pdf
    year: 2021
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer brochure, linked not reproduced
  wikipedia-tungsten:
    title: Tungsten, Wikipedia (includes the former Tungsten alloy article)
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0, linked not reproduced
  pubchem-nickel:
    title: PubChem compound record, Nickel (CID 935), GHS classification
    id: CID 935
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Nickel
    year: 2026
    kind: database
    license: public domain (NCBI)
  usgs-mcs2026-tungsten:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Tungsten
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tungsten.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-mcs2026-nickel:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-crit2025:
    title: About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals (USGS, final list of 60 minerals)
    id: Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals, November 2025
    url: https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals
    year: 2025
    kind: web
    license: public domain (USGS)
  ec-crm:
    title: Critical raw materials, European Commission (critical and strategic raw materials)
    url: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en
    kind: web
    license: European Commission web page
  rmme-corrosion-2018:
    title: Corrosion Performance of W-Ni-Cu and W-Ni-Fe Alloys, Rare Metal Materials and Engineering 47(6), 1708-1715
    url: https://rmme.ijournals.cn/rmmeen/article/abstract/20171182
    year: 2018
    kind: paper
    license: journal abstract page, linked not reproduced
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-26'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 26
  unreachable: 2
  caveats: 4
  note: 'Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages named in each entry. Unreachable: Batten et al. 1988 (INIS record, HTTP 402) and the Plansee property charts (images only). Caveats: the ASTM B777 elongation in the main table conflicts with the nonmagnetic footnote on the same supplier page; ASTM values are minimums while the Plansee values are typical; the binder mapping to ASTM classes comes from the brochure table; the corrosion source gives no numbers.'
story:
  recipe:
    line: 'Tungsten heavy alloy is made by pressing mixed metal powders and liquid-phase sintering them (Plansee brochure). Grades are named by tungsten content and binder: 90 to 97 wt % tungsten with a nickel-iron (Densimet) or nickel-copper (Inermet) binder. ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4 run from 90 % to 97 % tungsten.'
    parts:
      - name: Tungsten
        symbol: W
        share: 90 to 97 wt %
        role: The dense skeleton. It supplies most of the density and the X-ray and gamma absorption.
      - name: Nickel
        symbol: Ni
        share: remainder with Fe or Cu; the Ni-to-Fe or Ni-to-Cu ratio is not printed on the pages read
        role: The binder that wets and joins the tungsten grains in the liquid-phase sinter, giving ductility.
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share: Densimet (Ni-Fe) grades
        role: Binder partner to nickel in the weakly ferromagnetic Densimet grades.
      - name: Copper
        symbol: Cu
        share: Inermet (Ni-Cu) grades
        role: Binder partner to nickel in the paramagnetic Inermet grades.
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      lead: 'Dust and machining swarf are the main exposure. The binder carries the hazard: PubChem classifies nickel as a sensitiser and suspected carcinogen.'
      level: 2
      verdict: Contains nickel, which PubChem classifies as hazardous
      points:
        - label: Nickel
          line: PubChem's GHS summary for nickel lists H317 (allergic skin reaction), H351 (suspected cancer) and H372 (organ damage from repeated exposure), signal word Danger. It applies to nickel as a substance, so the alloy's own hazard depends on how much nickel reaches the surface or dust.
        - label: Dust and swarf
          line: Machining makes dust and swarf. The manufacturer gives turning parameters and emulsion coolant, but no dust-exposure limit was read.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: No failure data for the Ni-Fe or Ni-Cu classes were found in a readable source.
      points:
        - label: Ductility
          line: Minimum elongation falls from 5 % in class 1 to 2 % in class 4, so the highest-tungsten grades deform least before fracture.
    - title: Handling and storage
      points:
        - label: Machining
          line: Turn with positive-geometry inserts at 60 to 140 m/min, feed 0.05 to 0.3 mm, with emulsion coolant (Plansee machining table).
        - label: Storage
          line: No storage requirement was found in the sources read.
  why: Tungsten heavy alloys combine very high density with usable strength and ductility, because a tough nickel-based binder holds the tungsten grains together. The density (16.85 to 18.85 g/cc across ASTM B777 classes 1 to 4) comes close to pure tungsten, but the alloy machines and forms far more easily. The Ni-Fe and Ni-Cu families differ in magnetism and in the binder's corrosion behaviour, which is why both are sold.
  uses:
    - where: Radiation shielding
      line: Plansee lists a high absorption capacity for X-rays and gamma rays. Wikipedia names radiation shielding among the aerospace and automotive uses of tungsten alloys.
    - where: Counterweights and ballast
      line: Wikipedia lists weights, counterweights and ballast keels for yachts among the uses that need high density.
    - where: Aerospace
      line: Plansee names the aerospace field among the uses for Densimet and Inermet. No spaceflight part made from these grades was found.
  can_do:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
      value: 16.85 to 18.85 g/cc
      line: ASTM B777 class ranges run from 16.85 to 17.25 g/cc (class 1, 90 % W) to 18.25 to 18.85 g/cc (class 4, 97 % W).
    - label: Strength
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
      value: 689 to 758 MPa minimum
      line: Minimum tensile strength is 758 MPa in classes 1 and 2, 724 MPa in class 3 and 689 MPa in class 4. Minimum yield strength is 517 MPa in every class.
    - label: Stiffness
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      value: 330 to 385 GPa typical
      line: Plansee's typical Young's modulus runs from 330 GPa (Inermet 170) to 385 GPa (Densimet 185).
  compare: Within the ASTM B777 classes, density, hardness and stiffness rise with tungsten content, while elongation falls. Class 1 gives the most ductility (5 % minimum) and class 4 the most density (up to 18.85 g/cc). The Ni-Cu grades are paramagnetic, while the Ni-Fe grades are weakly ferromagnetic.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Tensile strength
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    - label: Elongation
      benchmark: elongation
  handling:
    - Name the class and binder (Ni-Fe or Ni-Cu) when ordering, because density, strength and magnetism differ between them.
    - Keep dust and swarf down during machining, and use emulsion coolant as the manufacturer specifies.
    - Treat nickel-bearing dust as a sensitiser and suspected carcinogen until a supplier SDS for the grade is read.
  good_for:
    - 'Radiation shielding: Plansee lists high X-ray and gamma absorption for Densimet and Inermet.'
    - 'Counterweights and ballast: 16.85 to 18.85 g/cc gives high mass in a small volume.'
  watch_out:
    - 'Nickel in the binder: PubChem lists H317, H351 and H372 for nickel.'
    - 'Ductility at the top of the range: minimum elongation is 2 % in class 4.'
    - Corrosion data are qualitative. The abstract gives no rate for either the Ni-Fe or the Ni-Cu alloy in acid or water.
  verdict: Tungsten heavy alloy is the dense, machinable choice when mass in a small volume and X-ray or gamma absorption matter more than low density. Its ductility falls as the tungsten fraction rises, and its nickel binder brings a hazard that a supplier SDS must cover. No spaceflight or vacuum data were found.