spore: profile
id: steel-1045
spore_version: 0.2
family: carbon-and-alloy-steels
name: Carbon steel 1045
abbreviation: 1045 (UNS G10450, AISI 1045)
role: medium-carbon machinery steel
category: metals
type: steels-and-stainless
summary: |
  AISI 1045 is a plain medium-carbon steel: iron with about 0.43 to 0.50 percent carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 percent manganese. It is stronger than low-carbon steel, especially after heat treatment, and it is used for axles, shafts, gears and machine parts. It rusts in moist air and salt, so outdoor parts need a coating, and its strength depends on the processing condition.
best_for: Forged or machined axles, shafts, gears and machine parts that need more strength than low-carbon steel, and that are coated against rust
weakest_at: Rust in moist air and salt unless it is coated, and strength that depends on whether the bar was cold drawn, hot rolled, normalised or annealed
identity:
  formula: Fe balance; 0.43 to 0.50 C, 0.60 to 0.90 Mn, max 0.040 P, max 0.050 S, max 0.100 Si (wt%)
  source: icast-aisi1045
  where: Chemical Composition table, AISI 1045 sheet
  designations:
    - system: UNS
      code: G10450
      source: icast-aisi1045
      where: Cross Reference Table, row G10450 (UNS)
    - system: AISI
      code: '1045'
      source: icast-aisi1045
      where: 'Sheet title, Material: AISI 1045'
    - system: SAE
      code: '1045'
      source: icast-sae1045
      where: 'Sheet title, Material: SAE 1045'
    - system: EN
      code: '1.0503'
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: saarstahl-c45
      where: Material No. field of the Saarstahl C45 sheet
    - system: EN name
      code: C45
      note: nearest equivalent
      source: saarstahl-c45
      where: Sheet title Saarstahl - C45
    - system: JIS
      code: S45C
      source: totalmateria-1045
      where: International Equivalent Materials list, row S45C (JIS, Japan, Official)
    - system: ASTM
      code: A29
      note: listed for AISI 1045 by MaterialWelding
      source: materialwelding-1045
      where: Material Specification standards for AISI 1045 Steel list
    - system: ASTM
      code: A576
      note: listed for AISI 1045 by MaterialWelding
      source: materialwelding-1045
      where: Material Specification standards for AISI 1045 Steel list
    - system: ASME
      code: SA-29
      note: grade 1045
      source: totalmateria-1045
      where: International Equivalent Materials list, row SA-29 1045 (ASME)
tags:
  environments: []
  stresses: []
  applications:
    - mechanisms
    - structures
properties:
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 540
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: under 16 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size under 16 mm, Yield Strength row printed as Min 540, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size under 16 mm, Yield Strength row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 690
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: under 16 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size under 16 mm, Tensile Strength row printed as Min 690, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size under 16 mm, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 8
    bound: lower
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: under 16 mm
      gauge: A5
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size under 16 mm, Elongation (A5 %) row printed as Min 8, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size under 16 mm, Elongation row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 510
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 16 to 38 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 16 to 38 mm, Yield Strength row printed as Min 510, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 16 to 38 mm, Yield Strength row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 650
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 16 to 38 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 16 to 38 mm, Tensile Strength row printed as Min 650, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 16 to 38 mm, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 8
    bound: lower
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 16 to 38 mm
      gauge: A5
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 16 to 38 mm, Elongation (A5 %) row printed as Min 8, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 16 to 38 mm, Elongation row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 500
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 38 to 63 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 38 to 63 mm, Yield Strength row printed as Min 500, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 38 to 63 mm, Yield Strength row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 640
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 38 to 63 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 38 to 63 mm, Tensile Strength row printed as Min 640, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 38 to 63 mm, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 9
    bound: lower
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: cold drawn
      size: 38 to 63 mm
      gauge: A5
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn column, size 38 to 63 mm, Elongation (A5 %) row printed as Min 9, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Cold Drawn, size 38 to 63 mm, Elongation row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 300
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: hot rolled
      size: under 250 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, column headed Rolled (the same page lists Hot Rolled as a supply condition), size under 250 mm, Yield Strength row printed as Min 300, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Rolled column, Yield Strength row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 570
    value_high: 700
    bound: range
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: hot rolled
      size: under 250 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: range as printed
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, column headed Rolled (the same page lists Hot Rolled as a supply condition), Tensile Strength row printed as 570-700, range as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Rolled column, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 14
    bound: lower
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: hot rolled
      size: under 250 mm
      gauge: A5
      temperature: not stated
      basis: minimum (datasheet Min)
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, column headed Rolled, size under 250 mm, Elongation (A5 %) row printed as Min 14, value as printed
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Rolled column, Elongation row
  - benchmark: brinell_hardness
    value: 170
    value_high: 210
    bound: range
    unit: HB
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: hot rolled
      size: under 250 mm
      temperature: not stated
      basis: range as printed
    method: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, column headed Rolled, Hardness (HB) row printed as 170-210, range as printed; custom name brinell_hardness
    status: ground
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Mechanical Properties (reference) table, Rolled column, Hardness row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 59000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: as rolled (hot rolled bar)
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Yield Point (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Yield Point row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 90000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: as rolled (hot rolled bar)
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Tensile Strength (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 26
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: as rolled (hot rolled bar)
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      gauge: 2 in
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Elongation row, percent in 2 in as printed in the table footnote
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, As Rolled column, Elongation row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 58000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: normalized
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Yield Point (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Yield Point row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 87000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: normalized
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Tensile Strength (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 28
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: normalized
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      gauge: 2 in
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Elongation row, percent in 2 in as printed in the table footnote
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Normalized column, Elongation row
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    value: 48000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: annealed
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Yield Point (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Yield Point row
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    value: 80000
    unit: psi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: annealed
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Tensile Strength (PSI) row, value as printed in psi
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Tensile Strength row
  - benchmark: elongation
    value: 30
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: annealed
      product: bar (page section C1045 Bar Products)
      gauge: 2 in
      temperature: not stated
      basis: typical, representative tests
    method: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Elongation row, percent in 2 in as printed in the table footnote
    status: ground
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, Annealed column, Elongation row
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    value: 190
    value_high: 210
    bound: range
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      processing: not stated
      temperature: not stated on the extracted page
      basis: range as printed
    method: AISI 1045 Physical Properties table, Modulus of Elasticity row, range printed as 190 to 210 with unit GPa; the temperature tab for this value is not identified in the extracted text
    status: ground
    source: totalmateria-1045
    where: AISI 1045 Physical Properties table, Modulus of Elasticity row
corrosion:
  - environment: Moist air, with or without salt
    headline: Carbon steel rusts in moist air, and salt makes it worse
    effect: Per Wikipedia, carbon steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion, especially in environments with high moisture levels and/or salt. It can be shielded from corrosion by coating it with paint, varnish or other protective material. No corrosion rate for AISI 1045 was found.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      humidity: high moisture
      salt: adds to the attack
    source: wiki-carbon-steel
    where: Corrosion paragraph
  - environment: Seawater and salt spray
    headline: Salt makes iron rust faster
    effect: Per Wikipedia, if salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of chemical reactions.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      exposure: seawater or salt spray
    source: wiki-rust
    where: Rust article, paragraph on salt
  - environment: Moisture in air (rust as iron oxide)
    headline: Rust is an iron oxide that forms from iron, oxygen and water or air moisture
    effect: Per Wikipedia, rust is a usually reddish-brown iron oxide formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air moisture. Surface rust is flaky and gives no passivational protection to the iron underneath.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      humidity: water or air moisture
    source: wiki-rust
    where: Lead paragraph and surface rust paragraph
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: 'PubChem aggregated GHS for elemental manganese, signal word Danger: H372 causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure; H228 (11.6%) flammable solid. PubChem notes that the element does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 46.1% (1429 of 3101) of reports. It covers the metal, not the solid steel.'
      ghs:
        - H372
        - H228
      source: pubchem-mn
      where: Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification
    - text: 'PubChem aggregated GHS for elemental iron, signal word Danger: H228 (15.5%) flammable solid. PubChem notes that the element does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 74.1% (4458 of 6013) of reports. It covers the metal, not the solid steel.'
      ghs:
        - H228
      source: pubchem-fe
      where: Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Atmospheric rust on uncoated surfaces
      trigger: Moist air, or salt in seawater or salt spray
      consequence: Rust forms and is faster with salt; surface rust is flaky and gives no passivational protection to the iron underneath (Wikipedia, Rust)
      source: wiki-rust
      where: Lead paragraph, salt paragraph and surface rust paragraph
    - mode: Cracking during welding
      trigger: High carbon content with no preheat
      consequence: Cracks in the weld zone unless the part is preheated to about 200 to 300 °C (MaterialWelding)
      source: materialwelding-1045
      where: AISI 1045 Welding section
    - mode: Brittleness after quench hardening
      trigger: Heating to about 850 °C, then rapid quenching in water or oil
      consequence: Hardness and tensile strength rise, but malleability falls and fractures become much more likely (Wikipedia, Carbon steel)
      source: wiki-carbon-steel
      where: Heat treatment paragraph
  side_effects: []
  handling:
    - text: Stress relieve cold-drawn bar at not less than 288 °C after drawing (Total Materia)
      source: totalmateria-1045
      where: AISI 1045 Heat Treatments
    - text: 'Recommended heat treatment, voestalpine: normalise at 850 °C and air cool; anneal at 680 to 710 °C and cool slowly in a controlled furnace; harden at 800 to 830 °C and water quench; temper at 150 to 200 °C and air cool'
      source: voestalpine-1045
      where: Heat Treatment (recommended) table
    - text: Total Materia gives hardening at 815 to 845 °C with a quench in water or caustic
      source: totalmateria-1045
      where: AISI 1045 Heat Treatments
    - text: Preheat to about 200 to 300 °C before welding to avoid cracking; post-weld heat treatment at 550 to 660 °C, kept below the tempering temperature of quenched and tempered parts (MaterialWelding)
      source: materialwelding-1045
      where: AISI 1045 Welding section
    - text: Machine in the normalised condition, which MaterialWelding prefers; annealed machining is also possible
      source: materialwelding-1045
      where: AISI 1045 Machining section
  mitigations:
    - text: Coat it with paint, varnish or another protective material (Wikipedia, Carbon steel)
      source: wiki-carbon-steel
      where: Corrosion paragraph
    - text: Use a stainless alloy with chromium where corrosion resistance is essential (Wikipedia, Carbon steel)
      source: wiki-carbon-steel
      where: Corrosion paragraph
    - text: Keep parts dry and out of salt spray, because salt makes rust faster (Wikipedia, Rust)
      source: wiki-rust
      where: Salt paragraph
uses:
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Axles, clutch members and shafts
    example: Heavy forgings in the normalised condition are suitable for automotive and general engineering, such as axles, clutch members and shafts (voestalpine)
    source: voestalpine-1045
    where: Description paragraph
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Gears, pinions and stud bolts
    example: Metal Supermarkets lists axles, stud bolts, ordinary shafts, pinions and gears as typical applications
    source: metalsupermarkets-1045
    where: Typical Applications list
  - application: structures
    device: Heavy machinery parts
    example: MaterialWelding lists heavy machinery such as drilling rigs, oil rigs and mining equipment among its uses
    source: materialwelding-1045
    where: AISI 1045 Steel Applications list
supply:
  - subject: Iron and steel (United States)
    abundance: Iron is the least expensive and most widely used metal (USGS). The US produced 82 million metric tons of raw steel in 2025 and its net import reliance was 13 percent of apparent consumption in 2025e. Construction took an estimated 31 percent of net shipments.
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Scrap recycling is covered in the separate USGS Iron and Steel Scrap chapter, which was not checked for this profile
    substitutes:
      - Aluminum and plastics in the automotive industry; aluminum, concrete and wood in construction (USGS Substitutes text)
    source: usgs-iron-steel-2026
    where: Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics table; Substitutes
  - subject: Raw steel production by country (2025e)
    abundance: 'World raw steel production was 1,900 million metric tons in 2025e (rounded total). Printed 2025e raw steel tonnages in million metric tons: China 980, India 160, United States 82, Japan 81, Russia 65.'
    producers:
      - country: China
        year: 2025
      - country: India
        year: 2025
      - country: United States
        year: 2025
      - country: Japan
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: ''
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-iron-steel-2026
    where: World Production table, Raw steel 2025e column
  - subject: Manganese (United States)
    abundance: No manganese ore containing 20 percent or more manganese has been produced in the United States since 1970 (USGS). Net import reliance was 100 percent of apparent consumption in 2025e (manganese content). Manganese content typically ranges from 35 to 54 percent in ore and from 74 to 95 percent in ferromanganese.
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: Manganese is recovered along with iron from steel slag, but recovery specifically for manganese was negligible (USGS)
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-manganese-2026
    where: Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics table, net import reliance row
  - subject: Manganese ore and ferromanganese import sources (2021 to 2024)
    abundance: 'Manganese ore: Gabon 64 percent, South Africa 24 percent, Mexico 12 percent, other under 1 percent. Ferromanganese: Malaysia 26 percent, Australia 16 percent, Norway 16 percent, South Africa 14 percent, other 28 percent (USGS).'
    producers: []
    critical_lists: []
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-manganese-2026
    where: Import Sources (2021 to 2024)
  - subject: Manganese ore production and resources (world)
    abundance: 'Mine production in 2025e, manganese content, thousand metric tons: South Africa 7,600, Gabon 5,000, Ghana 2,000, Australia 1,600, China 700; world total 20,000 (rounded). South Africa holds an estimated 70 percent of world manganese resources (USGS).'
    producers:
      - country: South Africa
        year: 2025
      - country: Gabon
        year: 2025
      - country: Ghana
        year: 2025
      - country: Australia
        year: 2025
      - country: China
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-manganese-2026
    where: World Mine Production (manganese content) and Reserves table, 2025e column; World Resources paragraph
media: []
documents:
  - title: 'voestalpine High Performance Metals: AISI 1045 / 1.1191 / G10430 datasheet (Australia)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2024/08/Datasheet-1045-2026-v1.pdf
  - title: 'Metal Supermarkets: Hot Rolled Steel C1045 grade summary'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/hot-rolled-steel-c1045/
  - title: 'iCAST Alloys: AISI 1045 carbon steel composition and cross-reference sheet'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/AISI%201045.pdf
  - title: 'iCAST Alloys: SAE 1045 carbon steel composition and cross-reference sheet'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/SAE%201045.pdf
  - title: 'Saarstahl: Material specification sheet, C45 (1.0503)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://en.saarstahl.com/app/uploads/2024/03/20160401102929-0503_C45.pdf
  - title: 'Total Materia: AISI 1045 Structural and constructional steels'
    type: database
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250033
  - title: 'MaterialWelding.com: AISI 1045 Steel S45C C45 Properties'
    type: report
    url: https://materialwelding.com/?p=524362
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Iron and Steel'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-iron-steel.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Manganese'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-manganese.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'PubChem: Manganese (CID 23930), GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON
  - title: 'PubChem: Iron (CID 23925), GHS classification'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23925/JSON
gaps:
  - Density, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, specific heat, thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical resistivity and melting range for AISI 1045 were not found on any page fetched. Total Materia shows these only as locked values (val1, free registration).
  - No quenched-and-tempered strength or hardness value for AISI 1045 was found. Voestalpine gives tempering at 150 to 200 °C, Total Materia gives hardening at 815 to 845 °C, and MaterialWelding gives a tempering range of 400 to 640 °C with no strength figures. The Saarstahl sheet has quenched-and-tempered values, but it is for C45 (1.0503), so it is not used.
  - Normalised and annealed values are typical figures from Metal Supermarkets, a reseller, in psi as printed. No manufacturer minimum for normalised or annealed bar was found. The voestalpine column for forgings, rough machined and normalised product over 250 mm mixes conditions, so it is not used.
  - Voestalpine cold-drawn and hot-rolled figures are minimum reference limits (Min), not typical values. Its hot-rolled column is headed Rolled; the page lists Hot Rolled as a supply condition, which is why the column is recorded as hot rolled.
  - Hardness is recorded under the custom name brinell_hardness, which is not in property-canon. Metal Supermarkets prints Brinell values of 201, 192 and 159 with no unit, so they are not recorded, and its plate figures are not recorded because the plate condition is not stated.
  - Total Materia's tensile range of 450 to 862 MPa has no condition and is not recorded. The iCAST AISI 1045 and SAE 1045 mechanical blocks give ranges and minimums for several conditions together, so they are not recorded. MaterialWelding's general mechanical values (81.9 ksi, 45 ksi, 163 HB) have no condition and are not recorded.
  - Composition limits differ between sources. Voestalpine prints maximum sulfur and phosphorus of 0.035 and silicon of 0.35; MaterialWelding prints silicon 0.15 to 0.35; the iCAST SAE 1045 sheet prints phosphorus 0.030 maximum and lead 0.150 to 0.350. The recipe uses the iCAST AISI 1045 sheet, which matches Metal Supermarkets for carbon, manganese, phosphorus and sulfur.
  - No ASTM A108 designation is listed, because no page fetched prints A108 for this grade. ASTM cross-references printed by iCAST and Total Materia (A 311 Class A and B, A 827, A 682 and A 830) are not listed, and the voestalpine nearest-standards column (1.1191 CK45, 1.0501 C45) and its G10430 header are not listed.
  - EN 1.0503 and C45 carry the note nearest equivalent. Saarstahl lists SAE 1045 among the international grades of 1.0503, but its manganese range (0.50 to 0.80) differs from the 0.60 to 0.90 printed for AISI 1045.
  - No corrosion rate, salt-spray result or atmospheric test for AISI 1045 was found. The corrosion entries are qualitative and come from Wikipedia. Xometry returned 403, a guessed MISUMI blog URL returned a 404 page, and the Kippwerk page was empty.
  - The USGS iron and steel chapter was read; the iron ore and scrap chapters were not. No critical-mineral listing was found in the manganese chapter text, so critical_lists is empty for the supply items.
  - The PubChem hazard records cover elemental manganese and iron, not solid steel. No AISI 1045 safety data sheet was found, and welding fume and dust limits were not found. Stress, fatigue, impact, fire and high-temperature strength were not found for AISI 1045.
  - The Total Materia modulus value is not tied to one of its temperature tabs in the extracted text, so its temperature is recorded as not stated.
sources:
  voestalpine-1045:
    title: 'voestalpine High Performance Metals: AISI 1045 / 1.1191 / G10430 datasheet (Australia)'
    url: https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2024/08/Datasheet-1045-2026-v1.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  metalsupermarkets-1045:
    title: 'Metal Supermarkets: Hot Rolled Steel C1045 grade summary'
    url: https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/hot-rolled-steel-c1045/
    kind: web
    license: cited, not reproduced
  icast-aisi1045:
    title: 'iCAST Alloys: AISI 1045 carbon steel composition and cross-reference sheet'
    url: https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/AISI%201045.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  icast-sae1045:
    title: 'iCAST Alloys: SAE 1045 carbon steel composition and cross-reference sheet'
    url: https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/SAE%201045.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  saarstahl-c45:
    title: 'Saarstahl: Material specification sheet, C45 (1.0503)'
    url: https://en.saarstahl.com/app/uploads/2024/03/20160401102929-0503_C45.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: cited, not reproduced
  totalmateria-1045:
    title: 'Total Materia: AISI 1045 Structural and constructional steels'
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250033
    kind: database
    license: cited, not reproduced
  materialwelding-1045:
    title: 'MaterialWelding.com: AISI 1045 Steel S45C C45 Properties'
    url: https://materialwelding.com/?p=524362
    kind: web
    license: cited, not reproduced
  usgs-iron-steel-2026:
    title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Iron and Steel'
    id: mcs2026-iron-steel
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-iron-steel.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 2026
    license: public domain
  usgs-manganese-2026:
    title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Manganese'
    id: mcs2026-manganese
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-manganese.pdf
    kind: report
    year: 2026
    license: public domain
  wiki-carbon-steel:
    title: 'Wikipedia: Carbon steel'
    id: Carbon steel
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  wiki-rust:
    title: 'Wikipedia: Rust'
    id: Rust
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  pubchem-mn:
    title: 'PubChem: Manganese (CID 23930), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (REST record)'
    id: CID 23930
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem terms (public)
  pubchem-fe:
    title: 'PubChem: Iron (CID 23925), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (REST record)'
    id: CID 23925
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23925/JSON
    kind: database
    license: PubChem terms (public)
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-24'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 23
  unreachable: 0
  caveats: 21
  note: 'Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in that run. Strength rows are split by condition: cold drawn and hot rolled minimum limits from the voestalpine AISI 1045 datasheet (11 minimum values), typical as-rolled, normalised and annealed values from Metal Supermarkets, a reseller, in psi as printed (9 typical values), and an elastic modulus range from Total Materia with no condition stated (1 value).'
story:
  why: AISI 1045 is the common medium-carbon steel. It is stronger than low-carbon steel and can be heat treated for more strength, so it is chosen for shafts, axles, gears and machine parts. Its strength depends on the condition the bar was made in, so every figure in this profile is kept with its own condition.
  uses:
    - where: Shafts, axles and clutch members
      line: Voestalpine says heavy forgings in the normalised condition suit automotive and general engineering, such as axles, clutch members and shafts.
    - where: Gears, pinions and stud bolts
      line: Metal Supermarkets lists stud bolts, ordinary shafts, pinions and gears among its typical applications.
    - where: Heavy machinery
      line: MaterialWelding lists heavy machinery such as drilling rigs, oil rigs and mining equipment among the uses of AISI 1045.
  can_do:
    - label: Strength, cold drawn
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
      line: Cold-drawn bar under 16 mm has a minimum tensile strength of 690 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 540 MPa (voestalpine reference limits).
    - label: Strength, hot rolled
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
      line: Hot-rolled bar under 250 mm has a tensile range of 570 to 700 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 300 MPa (voestalpine).
    - label: Strength, as rolled
      benchmark: yield_strength
      line: Typical as-rolled bar gives 90000 psi tensile and 59000 psi yield (Metal Supermarkets, typical values).
    - label: Strength, annealed
      benchmark: yield_strength
      line: Typical annealed bar gives 80000 psi tensile and 48000 psi yield (Metal Supermarkets, typical values).
    - label: Stiffness
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      line: Elastic modulus is 190 to 210 GPa, with no condition stated (Total Materia).
  compare: 'AISI 1045 is a medium-carbon steel. Metal Supermarkets says heat treatment gives it more strength than lower-carbon steels can reach. Its figures depend on condition: the minimum yield for cold-drawn bar under 16 mm is 540 MPa, against 300 MPa for hot-rolled bar under 250 mm (voestalpine). Typical as-rolled and normalised bar give yield values of 59000 and 58000 psi (Metal Supermarkets). Every value here keeps its condition.'
  compare_rows:
    - label: Yield strength
      benchmark: yield_strength
      scope: material
    - label: Ultimate tensile strength
      benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
      scope: material
    - label: Elastic modulus
      benchmark: elastic_modulus
      scope: material
  handling:
    - 'Name the condition with every strength value: cold drawn, hot rolled, normalised and annealed give different figures (voestalpine, Metal Supermarkets).'
    - Stress relieve cold-drawn bar at not less than 288 °C after drawing (Total Materia).
    - Preheat before welding, and keep the post-weld heat treatment below the tempering temperature of quenched and tempered parts (MaterialWelding).
  good_for:
    - Forged or machined shafts, axles and gears that need more strength than low-carbon steel (voestalpine, Metal Supermarkets)
    - Machine parts cut in the normalised condition, which MaterialWelding prefers for machining
  watch_out:
    - Moist air and salt cause rust, so paint or coat outdoor parts (Wikipedia, Carbon steel)
    - 'Sources disagree on weldability: MaterialWelding says good weldability with preheat, while Metal Supermarkets says welding qualities are limited'
    - Minimum limits (voestalpine) and typical values (Metal Supermarkets) are different kinds of figure, so they are kept apart
    - Silicon and phosphorus limits differ between sources (see gaps); the recipe uses the iCAST AISI 1045 sheet
  verdict: AISI 1045 is a strong, widely available medium-carbon steel for axles, shafts and gears. It rusts in moist air and salt, so coat it. Quote its condition with every strength figure. No density or quenched-and-tempered strength value was found for it.
  recipe:
    line: AISI 1045 is iron with 0.43 to 0.50 percent carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 percent manganese, with at most 0.040 percent phosphorus and 0.050 percent sulfur (iCAST AISI 1045 sheet). It is sold as hot-rolled or normalised bar, and also as cold-drawn bar (voestalpine, MaterialWelding).
    parts:
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share_note: balance (the rest)
        role: The matrix of the steel. Iron makes up the rest of the composition.
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Iron row
      - name: Carbon
        symbol: C
        share_percent: 0.43
        share_high: 0.5
        role: Sets the strength and hardness. Medium-carbon steel balances ductility and strength (Wikipedia, Carbon steel).
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Carbon row
      - name: Manganese
        symbol: Mn
        share_percent: 0.6
        share_high: 0.9
        role: Adds hardenability (Wikipedia, Carbon steel, describes manganese additions for hardenability).
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Manganese row
      - name: Phosphorus
        symbol: P
        share_note: max 0.040
        role: Impurity held to a maximum limit.
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Phosphorus row
      - name: Sulfur
        symbol: S
        share_note: max 0.050
        role: Impurity held low. Trace sulfur makes steel red-short, brittle and crumbly at high working temperatures (Wikipedia, Carbon steel).
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Sulphur row
      - name: Silicon
        symbol: Si
        share_note: max 0.100
        role: Held to a maximum limit (iCAST). Other sources print a higher limit; see gaps.
        source: icast-aisi1045
        where: Chemical Composition table, Silicon row
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      level: 1
      verdict: PubChem hazards are for the metals
      lead: The PubChem records are for elemental manganese and iron, not for the solid steel. No AISI 1045 safety data sheet was found.
      points:
        - label: Manganese
          line: PubChem lists elemental manganese as Danger, with H372 (damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure).
        - label: Iron
          line: PubChem lists elemental iron with H228 (flammable solid) in some reports, and most reports do not meet GHS hazard criteria.
        - label: Workshop
          line: Cutting, grinding and welding make metal dust and fume. Fume and dust limits were not found, so check the supplier safety data sheet before work.
    - title: In the environment
      level: 2
      verdict: Moisture and salt drive rust
      lead: Rust is the main failure route for AISI 1045 outdoors.
      points:
        - label: Moist air
          line: Carbon steel is susceptible to rust in environments with high moisture, and salt makes it worse (Wikipedia, Carbon steel).
        - label: Coating
          line: Paint, varnish or another protective coating shields it (Wikipedia, Carbon steel).
    - title: Heat and welding
      level: 1
      verdict: Preheat and tempering matter
      lead: Quench hardening brings brittleness, and welding needs preheat.
      points:
        - label: Quench
          line: Heating to about 850 °C and quenching in water or oil raises hardness but reduces malleability and increases brittleness (Wikipedia, Carbon steel).
        - label: Welding
          line: Preheat to about 200 to 300 °C to avoid cracking, because of its high carbon content (MaterialWelding).