spore: profile
id: stainless-416
spore_version: 0.2
family: stainless-martensitic
name: AISI 416 stainless steel
abbreviation: '416'
role: free-machining structural stainless steel
category: metals
type: steels-and-stainless
summary: |
  AISI 416 (UNS S41600, EN 1.4005, X12CrS13) is a free-machining martensitic stainless steel with 12 to 14 % chromium and a sulfur addition of at least 0.15 %. Annealed, the Rolled Alloys data sheet gives a tensile strength of 75 to 90 ksi and a yield strength of 40 to 50 ksi, and the Swiss Steel (DEW) sheet gives a specification of at most 730 MPa tensile strength for the annealed state. Quenched and tempered to QT650, the EN 10088-3 values are a yield strength of at least 450 MPa and a tensile strength of 650 to 850 MPa. The sulfur gives the grade the best machinability among stainless steels, but it also makes 416 one of the least corrosion-resistant stainless grades.
best_for: Shafts, axles, gears, valve and pump parts and screw-machine parts that must be cut quickly and then hardened, kept away from chloride exposure
weakest_at: Corrosion resistance. The sulfur addition lowers it below the non-free-machining grade 410, and the Aalco datasheet calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure
identity:
  formula: Iron base with 12.0 to 14.0 % Cr, 0.15 % C maximum, 0.15 % S minimum, Mn 1.25 % maximum, Si 1.0 % maximum, P 0.06 % maximum, Mo 0.60 % maximum; martensitic free-machining stainless steel
  source: rolled-bulletin-416
  where: Chemical Composition table of the Rolled Alloys Bulletin 416U, rows MIN and MAX; grade identity from its Specifications line (UNS S41600)
  designations:
    - system: UNS
      code: S41600
      source: rolled-416-page
      where: Designations list, UNS line
    - system: AISI
      code: '416'
      source: dew-14005
      where: Relevant current and obsolete standards table, AISI row
    - system: EN
      code: '1.4005'
      source: aalco-416
      where: Page heading 1.4005 (416) Bar
    - system: EN name
      code: X12CrS13
      source: dew-14005
      where: Grade heading and Steel name column, EN 10088-3 row
    - system: ISO
      code: X12CrS13
      source: totalmateria-416
      where: Designations list, ISO entry
    - system: SAE
      code: '51416'
      source: totalmateria-416
      where: Designations list, SAE entry
    - system: JIS
      code: SUS416
      source: totalmateria-416
      where: Designations list, JIS entry
    - system: BS
      code: 416S21
      source: dew-14005
      where: Relevant current and obsolete standards table, BS row
    - system: AFNOR
      code: Z11CF13
      source: dew-14005
      where: Relevant current and obsolete standards table, AFNOR row
    - system: SS
      code: '2380'
      note: SIS 2380, Swedish standard number
      source: dew-14005
      where: Relevant current and obsolete standards table, SIS row
    - system: ASTM
      code: A 314
      note: specification listed for the grade
      source: rolled-bulletin-416
      where: Specifications line, ASTM entries
    - system: ASTM
      code: A 484
      note: specification listed for the grade
      source: rolled-bulletin-416
      where: Specifications line, ASTM entries
    - system: ASTM
      code: A 582
      note: specification listed for the grade
      source: rolled-bulletin-416
      where: Specifications line, ASTM entries
    - system: AMS
      code: '5610'
      note: Type II
      source: rolled-bulletin-416
      where: Specifications line, AMS entry
tags:
  environments: []
  stresses: []
  applications:
    - mechanisms
    - structures
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, 1.4005 bar
    value: 7.7
    unit: kg/dm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row density (kg/dm3)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, 1.4005 (EN 10088-3 bar)
    value: 7.75
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      spec: EN 10088-3:2005, bar
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Properties table, row Density
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, 416 plate
    value: 0.282
    unit: lb/in3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      product: 416 plate
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a supplier datasheet
    status: ground
    source: upmet-416
    where: Physical Properties of 416 table, row Density
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, 416
    value: 2714
    unit: °F
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: not stated
      note_on_form: no condition stated
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Physical Properties block, Melting Point line
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C
    value: 30
    unit: W/m K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: 20 °C
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row thermal conductivity at 20 °C (W/m K)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, 1.4005 bar (no temperature)
    value: 24.9
    unit: W/m.K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity, 416 at 212 °F
    value: 171.8
    unit: Btu·ft/ft2·hr·°F
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 212 °F
      condition: annealed (values for room-temperature properties; temperature column 212 °F)
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Physical Properties block, Thermal Conductivity row, column 212
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    label: Specific heat capacity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C
    value: 460
    unit: J/kg K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: 20 °C
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row specific heat capacity at 20 °C (J/kg K)
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Thermal expansion, 1.4005 bar, 20 to 100 °C
    value: 10.5
    unit: 10^-6/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: 20 to 100 °C
      unit_in_source: 10.5 x 10-6 (K-1)
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row thermal expansion, 20 to 100 °C
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Thermal expansion, 1.4005 bar, 20 to 300 °C
    value: 11.5
    unit: 10^-6/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: 20 to 300 °C
      unit_in_source: 11.5 x 10-6 (K-1)
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row thermal expansion, 20 to 300 °C
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Thermal expansion, 416 from 70 °F to 212 °F
    value: 5.6
    unit: in/in°F x 10-6
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 70 °F to 212 °F
      note: coefficient measured from 70 °F to the indicated temperature
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Physical Properties block, Coefficient of Thermal Expansion row, column 212
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Thermal expansion, 1.4005 (no temperature)
    value: 9.9
    unit: 10^-6/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Properties table, row Thermal Expansion
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Modulus of elasticity, 1.4005 bar
    value: 200
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      temperature: not stated
    method: Value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Properties table, row Modulus of Elasticity
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Modulus of elasticity, AISI 416 range
    value: 190
    value_high: 215
    bound: range
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 0 to 30 °C
      condition: not stated
    method: Range printed in a materials database
    status: ground
    source: totalmateria-416
    where: Physical properties list, Modulus of Elasticity row
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C
    value: 0.6
    unit: Ω mm2/m
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temperature: 20 °C
    method: Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Physical properties table, row electrical resistivity at 20 °C (Ω mm2/m)
  - benchmark: max_service_temp
    label: Maximum service temperature for scaling, continuous service
    value: 675
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      service: continuous
      property: scaling resistance, not a mechanical limit
    method: Value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Heat Resistance section, continuous service value
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Proof stress, 1.4005 bar up to 160 mm, EN 10088-3
    value: 450
    bound: lower
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      product_form: bar up to 160 mm diameter or thickness
      spec: EN 10088-3:2005
      temper: not named on the page
    method: Minimum value printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Mechanical Properties section, row Proof Stress, 450 Min MPa
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength Rp0.2, 1.4005 QT650 (minimum)
    value: 450
    bound: lower
    unit: N/mm2
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650 (quenched and tempered, tempered 680 to 780 °C)
      spec: EN 10088-3
    method: Specification minimum printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row yield strength Rp0.2, specification column
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength Rp0.2, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)
    value: 480
    unit: N/mm2
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row yield strength Rp0.2, typical column
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength, 416 annealed
    value: 40
    value_high: 50
    bound: range
    unit: ksi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: annealed
      temperature: 70 °F (room temperature)
      measure: 0.2% yield
    method: Range printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row 0.2% Yield Strength, column 70
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength, 416 tempered at 900 °F
    value: 138
    unit: ksi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature
      measure: 0.2% yield
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row 0.2% Yield Strength, column 900
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 1.4005 QT650 (specification)
    value: 650
    value_high: 850
    bound: range
    unit: N/mm2
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650
      spec: EN 10088-3
    method: Specification range printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile strength Rm, specification column
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)
    value: 710
    unit: N/mm2
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile strength Rm, typical column
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 1.4005 annealed (specification maximum)
    value: 730
    bound: upper
    unit: N/mm2
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: annealed (heated 745 to 825 °C, furnace cooled)
    method: Specification maximum printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, annealed table, row tensile strength Rm, Specification column
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 1.4005 bar (EN 10088-3)
    value: 650
    value_high: 850
    bound: range
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (416)
      product_form: bar up to 160 mm
      spec: EN 10088-3:2005
    method: Range printed in a stockholder datasheet
    status: ground
    source: aalco-416
    where: Mechanical Properties section, row Tensile Strength, 650 - 850 MPa
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 416 annealed
    value: 75
    value_high: 90
    bound: range
    unit: ksi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: annealed
      temperature: 70 °F (room temperature)
    method: Range printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Ultimate Tensile Strength, column 70
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength, 416 tempered at 900 °F
    value: 170
    unit: ksi
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Ultimate Tensile Strength, column 900
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation A5, 1.4005 QT650 (minimum)
    value: 12
    bound: lower
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650
      spec: EN 10088-3
    method: Specification minimum printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile elongation A5, specification column
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation A5, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)
    value: 14
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: QT650
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile elongation A5, typical column
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, 416 annealed
    value: 15
    value_high: 30
    bound: range
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: annealed
      temperature: 70 °F (room temperature)
    method: Range printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Elongation, column 70
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation, 416 tempered at 900 °F
    value: 18
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Elongation, column 900
  - benchmark: hardness_brinell
    label: Brinell hardness, 1.4005 annealed (specification maximum)
    value: 220
    bound: upper
    unit: HB
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: 1.4005 (X12CrS13)
      temper: annealed
    method: Specification maximum printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: dew-14005
    where: Heat treatment and mechanical properties, annealed table, row hardness HB, Specification column
  - benchmark: hardness_brinell
    label: Brinell hardness, 416 tempered at 900 °F
    value: 385
    unit: HB
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature
    method: Value printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Hardness Brinell, column 900
  - benchmark: hardness_rockwell_c
    label: Hardness after hardening, 416
    value: 26
    value_high: 32
    bound: range
    unit: RC
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: hardened by heat treatment
      note: Rockwell C hardness as printed in the Features list
    method: Range printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Features list, first bullet on hardenability
  - benchmark: reduction_of_area
    label: Reduction of area, 416 annealed
    value: 40
    value_high: 60
    bound: range
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: annealed
      temperature: 70 °F (room temperature)
    method: Range printed in a corporate bulletin
    status: ground
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Mechanical Properties block, row Reduction in Area, column 70
corrosion:
  - environment: Dry atmosphere, fresh water, mild alkalis and mild acids
    headline: Useful resistance in mild conditions, but below the non-free-machining grades.
    effect: The Aalco datasheet says 416 has useful resistance to dry atmospheres, fresh water and mild alkalis and acids, but is less resistant than the equivalent non-free-machining grades. The Rolled Alloys sheet says 416 is highly resistant to typical atmospheric conditions, and that maximum corrosion resistance comes from hardening and polishing.
    rating: low
    conditions:
      basis: datasheet statements, no test rates given
    source: aalco-416
    where: Corrosion Resistance section (Aalco); Introduction (Rolled Alloys)
  - environment: Marine or chloride exposure
    headline: Not suitable for marine or chloride exposure.
    effect: The Aalco datasheet calls high-sulphur free-machining grades such as 416 totally unsuitable for marine or other chloride exposure. The Upmet and Continental sheets do not describe chloride resistance.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      basis: datasheet statement
    source: aalco-416
    where: Corrosion Resistance section
  - environment: Crevice and pitting conditions
    headline: Sulfur makes crevice and pitting corrosion a specification concern.
    effect: The DEW datasheet says that although 1.4005 has a nominal 13 % chromium, its corrosion resistance is compromised by the sulfur addition, and that care should be taken where crevice or pitting corrosion may occur. It calls 1.4005 probably the least corrosion-resistant of the stainless steel grades.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      basis: datasheet statement, no test data
    source: dew-14005
    where: Corrosion section, first paragraph
  - environment: Compared with 410 and austenitic grades
    headline: Lower than 410 and the austenitic grades.
    effect: The Aalco datasheet says the sulphur addition lowers corrosion resistance, weldability and formability below those of the non-free-machining grade 410, and that corrosion resistance is lower than the common austenitic grades.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      basis: datasheet comparison, no rates given
    source: aalco-416
    where: Introduction and Corrosion Resistance section
  - environment: Hardened and polished surface
    headline: Best corrosion resistance is in the hardened condition with a smooth finish.
    effect: The Aalco datasheet says maximum corrosion resistance is achieved in the hardened condition with a smooth surface finish. The Rolled Alloys sheet says the same, through hardening and polishing.
    rating: moderate
    conditions:
      basis: datasheet statement
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Introduction paragraph
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: The GPT Industries stainless steel SDS says stainless steel is considered an article and not hazardous in its solid form. Cutting, milling, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials. The sheet is generic for stainless steel and does not name 416.
      ghs: []
      source: gpt-ss-sds
      where: Section 2, Classification
    - text: The same SDS lists carcinogenicity Category 1B, respiratory sensitizer Category 1, specific target organ toxicity (repeated exposure) Category 1 and toxic to reproduction Category 1B for the hazardous elements that can be emitted during processing.
      ghs: []
      source: gpt-ss-sds
      where: Section 2, GHS classification table
    - text: The SDS says metal fumes can form during welding, burning, melting or hot rolling, and that hexavalent chromium may result from pickling stainless steel. It gives an iron-containing welding fume exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 (ACGIH TLV, 2011).
      ghs: []
      source: gpt-ss-sds
      where: Section 8 and Section 10, Hazardous decomposition products
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Weld cracking and loss of properties
      trigger: Welding 416 without the annealing or stress relief that the datasheets call for
      consequence: The Aalco datasheet says 416 has poor weldability and needs a low-hydrogen 410 electrode, preheat to 200 to 300 °C, and an immediate anneal or stress relief at 650 to 675 °C. The Rolled Alloys sheet says free-machining grades are usually not welded and must be annealed after welding at about 1450 °F.
      severity: moderate
      source: aalco-416
      where: Weldability section; Rolled Alloys bulletin Introduction
    - mode: Cracking under cold deformation
      trigger: Severe cold forming
      consequence: The Aalco datasheet says cold working is suitable only for minor deformation and that severe deformation will result in cracking.
      severity: moderate
      source: aalco-416
      where: Cold Working section
    - mode: Embrittlement in the 475 °C range
      trigger: Processing or service between 425 and 525 °C
      consequence: The DEW datasheet says 475 embrittlement occurs in this range, and that processing or service there should be avoided or minimised.
      severity: moderate
      source: dew-14005
      where: Elevated temperature properties section
    - mode: Loss of strength by over-tempering
      trigger: Service or heating above the relevant tempering temperature
      consequence: The Aalco datasheet says the grade should not be used above its tempering temperature if the mechanical properties must be kept, and that its useful range is limited by low ductility at sub-zero temperatures and loss of strength from over-tempering at elevated temperatures.
      severity: moderate
      source: aalco-416
      where: Heat Resistance and Introduction sections
    - mode: Corrosion from chlorides, sulfur-induced pitting and crevices
      trigger: Marine, chloride or crevice conditions
      consequence: The Aalco datasheet calls high-sulphur grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure, and the DEW datasheet warns about pitting and crevice corrosion.
      severity: critical
      source: dew-14005
      where: Corrosion section
  side_effects:
    - text: Sulfur is added on purpose for machinability, forming manganese sulfide inclusions that act as chip breakers. The same sulfur lowers corrosion resistance, weldability and formability, according to the Aalco datasheet.
      affects: Corrosion resistance, weld quality and forming
      source: aalco-416
      where: Introduction section
  handling:
    - text: 'Heat treat to the required temper: the DEW datasheet gives hardening at 950 to 1000 °C with air or oil quench and QT650 tempering at 680 to 780 °C. The Aalco datasheet gives hardening at 925 to 1010 °C with an oil quench and full annealing at 815 to 900 °C.'
      source: dew-14005
      where: Heat treatment section; Aalco heat treatment section
    - text: The Totalmateria page gives annealing at 816 to 899 °C with a furnace cool to 593 °C, and a subcritical anneal at 649 to 788 °C with air cooling.
      source: totalmateria-416
      where: Heat treatment entries
    - text: Wear dust and fume protection when machining, grinding or welding. The GPT SDS says these processes can emit hazardous material even though the solid is not hazardous.
      source: gpt-ss-sds
      where: Section 2 and Section 8
  mitigations:
    - text: The Aalco datasheet says best machinability is in the sub-critical annealed condition, which keeps machining cost down before the final hardening and tempering.
      source: aalco-416
      where: Machinability section
uses:
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Axles, shafts and gears
    example: The Rolled Alloys sheet lists axles, shafts and gears among the typical applications of 416. The DEW datasheet calls 1.4005 a special grade for shaft material.
    source: rolled-bulletin-416
    where: Applications list; DEW datasheet special grade for particular use
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Automatic screw-machine parts and pump and valve components
    example: The Rolled Alloys sheet lists automatic screw-machine parts and pump and valve components. The Aalco datasheet lists valve parts, pump shafts, automatic screw-machined parts, motor shafts and gears.
    source: aalco-416
    where: Typical applications list
  - application: structures
    device: Fasteners, bolts, nuts and studs
    example: The Upmet sheet lists fasteners and fittings. The Aalco datasheet lists bolts, nuts and studs among typical applications.
    source: upmet-416
    where: Industry Applications list
supply:
  - subject: Chromium (12 to 14 % of the alloy)
    producers:
      - country: South Africa
        share_percent: 45.1
        year: 2025
      - country: Turkey
        share_percent: 17.6
        year: 2025
      - country: Kazakhstan
        share_percent: 13.7
        year: 2025
      - country: India
        share_percent: 5.9
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: 'USGS: recycled chromium, contained in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts, accounted for 21 % of 2025 apparent consumption. The United States imported 79 % of its apparent consumption (2025e).'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-chromium
    where: World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e column, world total 51,000 thousand t (gross weight, Space Mushroom calculated the shares from the country values 23,000; 9,000; 7,000; 3,000); Recycling paragraph; Salient Statistics, net import reliance row; Substitutes paragraph
documents:
  - title: Swiss Steel (Deutsche Edelstahlwerke) datasheet 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1
    type: datasheet
    url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf
  - title: Aalco datasheet, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, EN 10088-3
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx
  - title: Rolled Alloys Bulletin 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet (2018)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf
    year: 2018
  - title: Upmet datasheet, Alloy 416 UNS S41600 plate
    type: datasheet
    url: https://upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/416-stainless.pdf
  - title: GPT Industries stainless steel safety data sheet
    type: sds
    url: https://www.gptindustries.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Stainless-Steel-Safety-Data-Sheet.pdf
    year: 2022
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: Totalmateria, AISI 416 stainless steels
    type: database
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250364
gaps:
  - Electrical conductivity (% IACS or MS/m) of 416 was not found. Only the DEW electrical resistivity row (0.60 Ω mm2/m at 20 °C) is recorded. Rolled Alloys prints resistivity in a unit that is unclear in the PDF text ('micro Hm•in'), so it was left out.
  - Hardness (Brinell, Rockwell C), reduction of area and Rockwell hardness are not in the property-canon file. They use the snake_case names hardness_brinell, hardness_rockwell_c and reduction_of_area.
  - Hardness at room temperature in the annealed state from Rolled Alloys is shown as a dash (no value); the DEW annealed hardness is a maximum specification (220 HB), so no room-temperature annealed Brinell minimum is entered.
  - The Totalmateria Brinell minimum of 223 HB and the tensile range of 485 to 1210 MPa have no printed condition, so they were left out.
  - The Totalmateria yield and elongation entries and the Upmet hardness value B82 have no printed condition or unit, so they were left out. The Upmet electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity values have no printed unit, so they were left out.
  - Continental Steel and the Atlas Steels page were read for composition and corrosion wording only. The Atlas Steels datasheet could not be read (compressed PDF), so its values were not used.
  - No Carpenter or ATI Type 416 datasheet was found. The CarTech and Carpenter 416 variants (Project 70, Project 70+, 416BQ, No. 5 BQ) are other grades or variants and were left out of designations.
  - The 416 SDS entry is a generic stainless steel SDS from GPT Industries that does not name 416. No 416-specific SDS was found.
  - Welding fume composition for 416 and machining fume exposure limits were not found.
  - No cryogenic (below 0 °C) tensile or toughness numbers were found, only the Aalco statement that ductility is lost at sub-zero temperatures.
  - Radiation, outgassing, atomic-oxygen and cold-welding results for 416 were not searched; no flight data for this grade were looked up.
  - Critical-mineral listing status for chromium was not printed in the MCS 2026 chromium text that was read, so critical_lists is empty.
  - Abundance of chromium in the crust and the share of chromium in lunar or Martian regolith were not looked up.
  - The Wikipedia stainless steel article was fetched for context, but it does not mention 416 and is not cited for any value.
sources:
  dew-14005:
    title: Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1
    url: https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf
    year: 2007
    kind: datasheet
    license: Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  aalco-416:
    title: Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)
    url: https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx
    kind: datasheet
    license: Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  rolled-bulletin-416:
    title: Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet
    id: Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18
    url: https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf
    year: 2018
    kind: datasheet
    license: Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)
  rolled-416-page:
    title: Rolled Alloys, Stainless 416 product page
    url: https://www.rolledalloys.ca/products/stainless-steel/stainless-416/
    kind: web
    license: Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)
  continental-416:
    title: Continental Steel, Alloy 416 (Type 416) grade page
    url: https://continentalsteel.com/stainless-steel/grades/alloy-416/
    kind: web
    license: Supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)
  totalmateria-416:
    title: Totalmateria, AISI 416 stainless steels
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250364
    kind: database
    license: Materials database page (cited, not reproduced)
  upmet-416:
    title: United Performance Metals, Alloy 416 UNS S41600 plate datasheet
    url: https://upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/416-stainless.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: Supplier datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  gpt-ss-sds:
    title: GPT Industries, Safety Data Sheet, Stainless Steel (generic, all grades)
    url: https://www.gptindustries.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Stainless-Steel-Safety-Data-Sheet.pdf
    year: 2022
    kind: datasheet
    license: Safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)
  usgs-mcs2026-chromium:
    title: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Chromium
    id: USGS MCS 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: Public domain (USGS)
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-25'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 35
  unreachable: 3
  caveats: 6
  note: 'Values read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-25 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry (PDFs extracted with pdftotext; HTML pages read through the fetch tool). Unreachable or unreadable: the Atlas Steels datasheet (compressed PDF), the Carpenter datasheet (not found), and a 403 on the makeitfrom 416 pages. Caveats: most strength values are datasheet minimums or ranges for one or two tempers, the Rolled Alloys values are in ksi, the USGS supply shares are calculated from printed country values, the GPT SDS is generic stainless steel and does not name 416, and the corrosion statements are qualitative.'
story:
  recipe:
    line: 'AISI 416 is an iron-chromium steel with 12 to 14 % chromium, carbon up to 0.15 %, and a deliberate sulfur addition of at least 0.15 %. The sulfur is added for machinability (Rolled Alloys, Aalco). The Rolled Alloys sheet gives the composition as a minimum and maximum table, with iron as the balance. The steel is heat treated after forming: full or sub-critical annealing, then hardening and tempering (DEW, Aalco).'
    parts:
      - name: Chromium
        symbol: Cr
        share: 12.0 to 14.0 % (min to max)
        role: The stainless element. It forms the passive film that gives stainless steel its corrosion resistance, and it sets the martensitic structure, which lets the grade be hardened.
      - name: Carbon
        symbol: C
        share: 0.15 % maximum (Rolled Alloys); 0.06 to 0.15 % (Aalco)
        role: Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet.
      - name: Sulfur
        symbol: S
        share: 0.15 % minimum (Rolled Alloys)
        role: The free-machining addition. It forms manganese sulfide inclusions that act as chip breakers, and it lowers corrosion resistance and weldability.
      - name: Manganese
        symbol: Mn
        share: 1.25 % maximum
        role: Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet.
      - name: Silicon
        symbol: Si
        share: 1.0 % maximum
        role: Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet.
      - name: Phosphorus
        symbol: P
        share: 0.06 % maximum
        role: Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet. Aalco describes phosphorus as an addition for machinability.
      - name: Molybdenum
        symbol: Mo
        share: 0.60 % maximum
        role: Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet.
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share: balance
        role: The base metal.
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      lead: The solid steel is an article under the GPT SDS, but cutting, grinding, melting and welding give off fume and dust.
      level: 1
      verdict: Hazard comes from processing
      points:
        - label: Solid form
          line: The GPT Industries SDS calls stainless steel an article that is not hazardous in its solid form. The sheet is generic and does not name 416.
        - label: Processing
          line: Cutting, milling, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials. The SDS lists carcinogenicity Category 1B and respiratory sensitizer Category 1 for the emitted elements, and it says fumes and dust should be controlled.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: The failure routes in the sources are weld cracking, sulfur-driven corrosion, and 475 embrittlement.
      points:
        - label: Welding
          line: Aalco says 416 has poor weldability and needs annealing or stress relief after any weld. Rolled Alloys says free-machining grades are usually not welded.
        - label: Chlorides
          line: Aalco calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure.
        - label: 475 range
          line: The DEW datasheet says processing or service between 425 and 525 °C should be avoided because of 475 embrittlement.
    - title: Handling and storage
      points:
        - label: Specify the temper
          line: Strength depends on temper. Annealed the DEW datasheet gives a maximum of 730 MPa tensile strength; quenched and tempered to QT650 it gives 650 to 850 MPa.
        - label: Keep it dry
          line: Keep parts away from chlorides, and use the hardened and polished condition where corrosion matters most (Aalco, Rolled Alloys).
  why: 'AISI 416 is the free-machining version of 12 % chromium martensitic stainless steel. Sulfur added to the 416 chemistry lets it be machined at high speed on automatic lathes, while it can still be hardened by heat treatment. The DEW datasheet describes it as the shaft-material grade for automated machining. The price of that machinability is corrosion resistance: Aalco says the sulfur lowers corrosion resistance below the non-free-machining grade 410.'
  uses:
    - where: Shafts, axles and gears
      line: The Rolled Alloys sheet lists axles, shafts and gears as typical uses. The DEW datasheet calls 1.4005 a special grade for shaft material.
    - where: Screw-machine and pump or valve parts
      line: Automatic screw-machine parts, pump components and valve parts are listed by Rolled Alloys and Aalco.
    - where: Fasteners
      line: Bolts, nuts and studs are listed by Aalco. Upmet lists fasteners and fittings.
  can_do:
    - label: Machine fast
      value: about 85 % of free-machining carbon steel
      line: Aalco says grade 416 has the highest machinability of any stainless steel, at about 85 % of that of a free-machining carbon steel. Upmet gives the same figure.
    - label: Harden
      value: 26 to 32 RC
      benchmark: hardness_rockwell_c
      line: The Rolled Alloys sheet says 416 can be hardened by heat treatment to 26 to 32 RC.
    - label: Carry load when quenched and tempered
      value: at least 450 MPa yield, 650 to 850 MPa tensile
      benchmark: yield_strength
      line: In the QT650 condition, the EN 10088-3 values are a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa and a tensile strength of 650 to 850 MPa, with a minimum A5 of 12 %.
    - label: Weight
      value: 7.7 kg/dm3
      benchmark: density
      line: The DEW datasheet gives a density of 7.7 kg/dm3. Aalco gives 7.75 g/cm3 for the same grade.
    - label: Heat
      value: 30 W/m K at 20 °C
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
      line: The DEW datasheet gives a thermal conductivity of 30 W/m K at 20 °C. Aalco gives 24.9 W/m.K without a temperature.
  compare: Against the non-free-machining grade 410, Aalco says 416 has lower corrosion resistance, weldability and formability because of its sulfur. Against the austenitic grades, Aalco says corrosion resistance is lower. This profile holds no 410 or austenitic values, so the comparison rests on the statements in the datasheets.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Thermal conductivity
      benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    - label: Thermal expansion
      benchmark: cte
  handling:
    - Specify the temper, because annealed, QT650 and hardened grades differ by a wide margin in strength.
    - Avoid chloride exposure. Aalco calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride service.
    - Weld only with a plan for annealing or stress relief afterwards, as Aalco and DEW both advise.
  good_for:
    - Shafts, axles and gears that are machined from bar.
    - Automatic screw-machine parts, where machinability is the main requirement.
    - Parts that are hardened and tempered, when the service environment is dry.
  watch_out:
    - 'Corrosion: the sulfur addition lowers corrosion resistance below grade 410 (Aalco, DEW).'
    - Welding is poor and needs post-weld annealing or stress relief (Aalco, Rolled Alloys).
    - The 475 range (425 to 525 °C) should be avoided (DEW).
    - No cryogenic or radiation numbers were found for this grade.
  verdict: AISI 416 is the free-machining stainless steel. It machines well and hardens to 26 to 32 RC, but the sulfur that makes it machinable makes it one of the least corrosion-resistant stainless grades. It is a shaft and screw-machine grade for dry service, not a marine or welded-structure grade.