spore: profile id: manganese spore_version: 0.2 family: manganese name: Manganese abbreviation: Mn role: alloying and deoxidising metal for steel, and the manganese element in dry cell and lithium-ion battery materials category: metals type: heavy-metals summary: | Manganese (Mn, atomic number 25) is a brittle transition metal with a density of 7.21 g/cm3 for alpha-manganese at 20 °C and a melting point of 1246 °C (Goodfellow). Its main use is in steel: Goodfellow lists its steelmaking roles as deoxidiser, desulphuriser and austenite stabiliser, and the USGS says consumption closely follows the steel industry. The United States imported 100 % of its apparent manganese consumption in every year from 2021 to 2025e (USGS 2026). best_for: 'Steelmaking: manganese deoxidises and desulphurises steel and stabilises austenite (Goodfellow), and the USGS reports no satisfactory substitute in its major applications' weakest_at: 'Brittleness and supply: alpha-manganese is completely brittle at room temperature with no measurable elongation (Goodfellow), and the United States imports all of its supply (USGS 2026)' identity: formula: Mn (element, atomic number 25); alpha-manganese at room temperature is a cubic structure with 58 atoms per cell (Goodfellow) crystal_system: cubic source: goodfellow-mn where: General Properties table, Atomic Number row (25); Crystal Structure row (alpha-Mn BCC-derived cubic, 58 atoms per cell) designations: [] tags: environments: [] stresses: [] applications: - structures - batteries properties: - benchmark: density label: Density, alpha-manganese at 20 °C value: 7.21 unit: g/cm3 scope: material conditions: temperature: 20 °C form: alpha-manganese, the room-temperature allotrope method: Value printed in the Goodfellow manganese material page, General Properties table status: ground source: goodfellow-mn where: General Properties table, row Density (20 °C, alpha-Mn) - benchmark: density label: Density of solid manganese value: 7.47 unit: g/cm3 scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row unit_in_source: 7470 kg m-3 method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page as 7470 kg m-3, converted to g/cm3 (7.47 g/cm3) status: ground note: Goodfellow prints 7.21 g/cm3 at 20 °C for alpha-manganese. The two densities differ by 0.26 g/cm3 and both are kept with their conditions. source: webelements-mn where: Density of solid row - benchmark: melting_point label: Melting point, manganese value: 1246 unit: °C scope: material conditions: basis: element, no condition printed in the row method: Value printed in the Goodfellow manganese material page, General Properties table status: ground source: goodfellow-mn where: General Properties table, row Melting Point 1,246 °C (1,519 K) - benchmark: boiling_point label: Boiling point, manganese value: 2061 unit: °C scope: material conditions: basis: element, no condition printed in the row method: Value printed in the Goodfellow manganese material page, General Properties table status: ground source: goodfellow-mn where: General Properties table, row Boiling Point 2,061 °C (2,334 K) - benchmark: thermal_conductivity label: Thermal conductivity, manganese (Goodfellow) value: 7.8 unit: W/(m·K) scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row unit_in_source: W/m·K method: Value printed in the Goodfellow manganese material page, General Properties table status: ground source: goodfellow-mn where: General Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity 7.8 W/m·K, no temperature given - benchmark: thermal_conductivity label: Thermal conductivity, manganese (WebElements) value: 7.8 unit: W/(m·K) scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row unit_in_source: W m-1 K-1 method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page, Thermal conductivity row status: ground source: webelements-mn where: Thermal conductivity row, value 7.8 W m-1 K-1 - benchmark: cte label: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, manganese value: 21.7 unit: ppm/K scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row unit_in_source: 10-6 K-1 method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page, Coefficient of linear thermal expansion row status: ground source: webelements-mn where: Coefficient of linear thermal expansion row, value 21.7 × 10-6 K-1 - benchmark: elastic_modulus label: Young's modulus, manganese (Goodfellow) value: 198 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row method: Value printed in the Goodfellow manganese material page, Mechanical Properties table status: ground source: goodfellow-mn where: Mechanical Properties table, row Elastic (Young's) Modulus 198 GPa, no temperature given - benchmark: elastic_modulus label: Young's modulus, manganese (WebElements) value: 198 unit: GPa scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page, Young's modulus row status: ground source: webelements-mn where: Young's modulus row, value 198 GPa - benchmark: electrical_resistivity label: Electrical resistivity, manganese value: 144 unit: 10-8 Ω·m scope: material conditions: temperature: not stated in the row unit_in_source: 144 × 10-8 Ω m method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page, Electrical resistivity row, as 144 × 10-8 Ω m; the site registry converts it to Ω·m status: ground source: webelements-mn where: Electrical resistivity row, value 144 × 10-8 Ω m - benchmark: mohs_hardness label: Mohs hardness, manganese value: 6 unit: '-' scope: material conditions: basis: mineral hardness scale, no temperature printed method: Value printed in the WebElements manganese physics page, Mineral hardness row (no units) status: ground note: Custom benchmark name, not in the property canon. Goodfellow prints Mohs ~6 for alpha-Mn. source: webelements-mn where: Mineral hardness row, value 6.0 (no units) corrosion: - environment: Moist air at room temperature headline: Manganese oxidises slowly in moist air. effect: Goodfellow says it oxidises slowly and forms a mixed MnO, Mn2O3 and Mn3O4 scale. rating: low conditions: basis: moist air at room temperature, as printed; no exposure duration printed source: goodfellow-mn where: Chemical Properties table, row Corrosion in Air risks: hazards: - text: The ECHA C&L aggregate on PubChem for manganese (EC 231-105-1) gives the signal word Danger and the hazard statements H228 (flammable solid), H319 (causes serious eye irritation), H411 (toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects) and H412 (harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects). ghs: - H228 - H319 - H411 - H412 source: pubchem-mn where: GHS Classification section, aggregated information from 22 ECHA notifications covering 3,101 company reports - text: Of the 3,101 company reports in the same aggregate, 1,429 (46.1 %) state that the substance does not meet GHS hazard criteria. ghs: [] source: pubchem-mn where: GHS Classification section, notifications and non-classification statement - text: 'Other classifications differ: NITE-CMC (FY2022) uses the signal word Danger with a GHS08 pictogram and lists H360, H372, H401 and H411, and Safe Work Australia lists only H372.' ghs: [] source: pubchem-mn where: GHS Classification section, other sources paragraph - text: NIOSH prints a TWA of 0.1 mg/m3 with a skin notation for manganese, and an OSHA PEL of C 5 mg/m3. ghs: [] source: niosh-npg-mn where: Exposure limits, REL and OSHA PEL entries failure_risks: - mode: Brittle fracture at room temperature trigger: Loading of the unalloyed metal at room temperature consequence: Goodfellow says the metal is completely brittle at room temperature with no measurable elongation, so the unalloyed metal is not a structural material on its own. severity: high source: goodfellow-mn where: Mechanical Properties table, row Brittleness - mode: Oxide scale in moist air trigger: Moist air at room temperature consequence: Slow oxidation to a mixed MnO, Mn2O3 and Mn3O4 scale (Goodfellow). severity: low source: goodfellow-mn where: Chemical Properties table, row Corrosion in Air side_effects: [] handling: - text: The ECHA aggregate on PubChem lists the precautionary codes P210 (keep away from heat), P273 (avoid release to the environment) and P280 (wear protective equipment). source: pubchem-mn - text: Keep airborne manganese within the NIOSH TWA of 0.1 mg/m3 with skin notation, and within the OSHA ceiling of C 5 mg/m3. source: niosh-npg-mn mitigations: [] uses: - application: structures device: Steel deoxidiser, desulphuriser and austenite stabiliser example: Goodfellow lists the steelmaking roles of manganese as deoxidiser (MnO), desulphuriser (MnS) and austenite stabiliser. The USGS says consumption closely follows the steel industry. source: goodfellow-mn where: Chemical Properties table, row Role in Steelmaking Chemistry - application: batteries device: Manganese dioxide in dry cell batteries example: The USGS says some manganese ore is consumed for nonmetallurgical uses, including dry cell batteries. source: usgs-mcs2026-manganese where: Domestic Production and Use paragraph - application: batteries device: Spinel LiMn2O4 cathode in lithium-ion batteries example: Huang et al. review spinel LiMn2O4 as a lithium-ion cathode and note that it degrades badly at extreme voltages and during high-temperature operation. source: huang-spinel-review where: Abstract supply: - subject: Manganese (world mine production, 2025e, manganese content) abundance: 'USGS 2026: world reserves are 1,800,000 thousand metric tons, and South Africa accounts for an estimated 70 % of world manganese resources. Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed.' producers: - country: South Africa (mine production 2025e, 7,600 thousand t of 20,000 thousand t world total) year: 2025 - country: Gabon (mine production 2025e, 5,000 thousand t) year: 2025 - country: Ghana (mine production 2025e, 2,000 thousand t) year: 2025 - country: Australia (mine production 2025e, 1,600 thousand t) year: 2025 critical_lists: [] recycling: 'USGS: manganese is recycled incidentally in ferrous and nonferrous scrap, scrap recovery specifically for manganese is negligible, and manganese is recovered along with iron from steel slag.' substitutes: - 'USGS: manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications.' source: usgs-mcs2026-manganese where: Events, Trends, and Issues; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); World Resources paragraph; Recycling; Substitutes - subject: Manganese (United States import dependence and sources) abundance: 'USGS 2026: net import reliance was 100 % of apparent consumption in each year from 2021 to 2025e.' producers: - country: Gabon (manganese ore imports, 2021 to 2024) share_percent: 64 year: 2024 - country: South Africa (manganese ore imports, 2021 to 2024) share_percent: 24 year: 2024 - country: Malaysia (ferromanganese imports, 2021 to 2024) share_percent: 26 year: 2024 critical_lists: [] source: usgs-mcs2026-manganese where: Salient Statistics table (net import reliance); Import Sources (2021 to 2024) documents: - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Manganese' type: report url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-manganese.pdf year: 2026 - title: Goodfellow, Manganese material data page type: datasheet url: https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/manganese - title: WebElements, Manganese physical properties type: database url: https://www.webelements.com/manganese/physics.html - title: PubChem compound record for manganese (CID 23930), GHS classification type: database url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification - title: NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, manganese type: database url: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=Mn&all=all&ascii=html - title: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, manganese entry type: report url: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0380.html - title: Lithium Manganese Spinel Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries, Advanced Energy Materials (DOI 10.1002/AENM.202000997) type: paper url: https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/133242 - title: US Patent 5,932,086, Process for making manganese type: report url: https://patents.google.com/patent/US5932086 gaps: - 'Specific heat: not printed by Goodfellow or WebElements, so not entered.' - 'Electrical resistivity from Goodfellow: 1,440 nΩ·m at 20 °C for alpha-Mn. The nΩ·m unit is not in the site unit registry, so only the WebElements value is entered.' - 'Hardness: Goodfellow prints about 196 HV (Vickers) and WebElements prints a Brinell value of 196 MN m-2. No canonical hardness property exists, so neither is entered. Mohs 6 is entered as a custom benchmark.' - 'Poisson''s ratio: WebElements prints no data, and Goodfellow does not print one.' - 'Space group: Goodfellow prints Im-3m in the crystal structure row and I-43m in its density note, so space_group is left out. Lattice parameter: not printed in a source read in this run.' - 'CAS number: not printed by any source read in this run, so identity has no cas.' - 'Designations: no UNS, EN, ASTM or other designation for unalloyed manganese was printed in a source read in this run, so designations is empty.' - 'Critical-mineral list status: the USGS 2026 manganese summary read in this run prints no critical-mineral list, and the EU list was not opened, so critical_lists is empty.' - 'Crustal abundance: Wikipedia was read but is used for composition and history only, so no abundance value is entered.' - 'Production process beyond electrolysis: the patent describes leaching manganese oxide with sulphuric acid and plating the metal onto a cathode. No other primary source on the process was read.' - 'Corrosion in acids, seawater and at elevated temperature: no source was read that prints a rate or a rating.' - 'Space-environment tests (outgassing, atomic oxygen, radiation): none found in the sources read.' - 'Lithium-ion cathode numbers: the full Huang et al. text could not be downloaded in this run (HTTP 429), so only the abstract statement is used and no capacity or voltage values are entered.' - 'Atomic weight: not a property-canon benchmark; the NIST value 54.938044 is used in recipe parts only.' - 'Media: no public-domain image of manganese metal was checked in this run, so media is empty.' sources: usgs-mcs2026-manganese: title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Manganese, February 2026 id: USGS MCS 2026, prepared by Ji-Eun Kim url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-manganese.pdf year: 2026 kind: report license: public domain (USGS) goodfellow-mn: title: Goodfellow, Manganese material page (general, mechanical and chemical properties) id: Goodfellow material page, metals, manganese url: https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/manganese kind: datasheet license: supplier web page (cited, not reproduced) webelements-mn: title: 'WebElements, Manganese: physical properties' id: WebElements manganese, physics page url: https://www.webelements.com/manganese/physics.html kind: database license: WebElements (cited, not reproduced) pubchem-mn: title: 'PubChem compound record: Manganese (CID 23930), GHS Classification section' id: CID 23930, EC 231-105-1, ECHA C&L Inventory aggregated notifications url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification kind: database license: PubChem (NCBI), public domain; sections attributed to ECHA nist-atomic-weights-mn: title: NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, manganese id: NIST standard atomic weight 54.938044(3) url: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=Mn&all=all&ascii=html kind: database license: US government data niosh-npg-mn: title: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, manganese entry id: NIOSH NPG, npgd0380 url: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0380.html kind: handbook license: US government data huang-spinel-review: title: Lithium Manganese Spinel Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries, Advanced Energy Materials id: DOI 10.1002/AENM.202000997 url: https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/133242 kind: paper license: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (MIT DSpace accepted manuscript) us5932086: title: US Patent 5,932,086, Process for making manganese id: US 5,932,086 url: https://patents.google.com/patent/US5932086 kind: web license: patent publication (cited, not reproduced) license: CC-BY-4.0 updated: '2026-10-26' review: status: draft method: assistant checked_values: 11 unreachable: 1 caveats: 6 note: Values were read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. The USGS summary was read from text extracted from the PDF. Web pages were read through a fetch tool that returns a summary, so every value still needs the verify-values check. The full Huang et al. text could not be downloaded (HTTP 429), so no battery numbers are entered. Density differs between Goodfellow (7.21 g/cm3 at 20 °C) and WebElements (7.47 g/cm3); both are kept with their conditions. story: recipe: line: Manganese is a single-element metal (Mn, atomic number 25). Electrolytic manganese metal is made by leaching manganese oxide with sulphuric acid, purifying the solution, and plating the metal onto a cathode in flake form (US patent 5,932,086). parts: - name: Manganese symbol: Mn atoms: 1 atomic_weight: 54.938044 role: The base metal. Density 7.21 g/cm3 at 20 °C for alpha-manganese (Goodfellow), and completely brittle at room temperature. risk_groups: - title: For people lead: The ECHA aggregate lists the metal as a flammable solid with serious eye irritation, and the airborne exposure limit is low. level: 2 verdict: Low airborne limit and eye hazard; control dust. points: - label: Manganese dust line: NIOSH prints a TWA of 0.1 mg/m3 with a skin notation, and the OSHA PEL is a ceiling of C 5 mg/m3. - label: Metal classification line: The ECHA aggregate on PubChem lists H228, H319, H411 and H412 with signal word Danger, and 46.1 % of company reports say the substance does not meet the criteria. - title: If it fails lead: The main failure routes are brittle fracture of the metal at room temperature, and slow oxidation in moist air. points: - label: Brittle at room temperature line: Goodfellow says alpha-manganese is completely brittle at room temperature, with no measurable elongation. - label: Moist air line: Goodfellow says it oxidises slowly in moist air and forms a mixed MnO, Mn2O3 and Mn3O4 scale. why: Manganese is mainly a steel input. Goodfellow lists its steelmaking roles as deoxidiser, desulphuriser and austenite stabiliser, and the USGS says consumption closely follows the steel industry and that no satisfactory substitute exists in its major applications. The metal is brittle at room temperature, so its value lies in alloys and battery materials rather than as a structural metal on its own. uses: - where: Steel line: Goodfellow lists manganese as a deoxidiser (MnO), desulphuriser (MnS) and austenite stabiliser in steelmaking. The USGS says consumption closely follows the steel industry. - where: Dry cell batteries line: The USGS says some manganese ore is consumed for nonmetallurgical uses, including dry cell batteries. - where: Lithium-ion cathodes line: Huang et al. review spinel LiMn2O4 as a lithium-ion cathode and note that it degrades badly at extreme voltages and during high-temperature operation. can_do: - label: Weight value: 7.21 g/cm3 benchmark: density line: Goodfellow prints a density of 7.21 g/cm3 for alpha-manganese at 20 °C. WebElements prints 7470 kg m-3, which is 7.47 g/cm3. - label: Melting value: 1246 °C benchmark: melting_point line: Goodfellow prints a melting point of 1246 °C for manganese. - label: Heat value: 7.8 W/(m·K) benchmark: thermal_conductivity line: Goodfellow and WebElements both print a thermal conductivity of 7.8 W/(m·K), with no temperature given. - label: Stiffness value: 198 GPa benchmark: elastic_modulus line: Goodfellow and WebElements both print a Young modulus of 198 GPa, with no temperature given. compare: Manganese at 20 °C has a density of 7.21 g/cm3 in Goodfellow and 7.47 g/cm3 in WebElements, and a melting point of 1246 °C. Its thermal conductivity of 7.8 W/(m·K) is the same in both sources, with no temperature printed. The two density values differ by 0.26 g/cm3, and both are kept with their conditions. compare_rows: - label: Density benchmark: density - label: Melting point benchmark: melting_point - label: Thermal conductivity benchmark: thermal_conductivity handling: - Keep the metal away from heat, avoid release to the environment and wear protective equipment (P210, P273 and P280, ECHA aggregate on PubChem). - Keep airborne manganese within the NIOSH TWA of 0.1 mg/m3 with skin notation. - Treat the metal as toxic to aquatic life, with H411 and H412 in the ECHA aggregate on PubChem. good_for: - 'Steel: manganese deoxidises and desulphurises steel and stabilises its austenite (Goodfellow).' - 'Batteries: manganese dioxide is used in dry cells, and spinel LiMn2O4 is studied as a lithium-ion cathode (USGS; Huang et al.).' - 'Supply: South Africa mined an estimated 7,600 thousand t of 20,000 thousand t world output in 2025e (USGS 2026).' watch_out: - 'Brittleness: alpha-manganese is completely brittle at room temperature with no measurable elongation (Goodfellow).' - 'Hazard classification: the ECHA aggregate lists H228, H319, H411 and H412, but 46.1 % of company reports say the substance does not meet GHS criteria (PubChem).' - 'Import dependence: the United States imported 100 % of its apparent manganese consumption from 2021 to 2025e (USGS 2026).' - No space outgassing, erosion or radiation data for manganese were found in the sources read. verdict: Manganese is mainly an alloying metal. Goodfellow gives a density of 7.21 g/cm3 and a melting point of 1246 °C, and the metal is brittle at room temperature, so it is used in steel and battery materials rather than as a structural metal. The main hazard data are an ECHA aggregate and a low airborne exposure limit, and this profile has no space-environment test data. media: []