spore: profile
id: lithium-hydroxide
spore_version: 0.2
family: lithium
name: Lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
abbreviation: LiOH
role: CO2 absorbent and lithium precursor
category: ceramics
type: oxides
summary: |
  Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is a white, hygroscopic solid that is corrosive and toxic in handling. ICSC 0913 gives its density as 2.54 g/cm3 and its water solubility as 12.8 g per 100 ml at 20 °C. Its best-documented space use is as the carbon dioxide absorbent in Shuttle breathing-loop scrubbers.
best_for: Scrubbing carbon dioxide from a closed breathing loop, where it was the principal absorbent used by NASA in the Shuttle (Jaunsen, 1989)
weakest_at: 'Corrosive and toxic in handling: ICSC 0913 gives the signal word DANGER and warns that it is fatal if inhaled'
identity:
  formula: LiOH
  cas: 1310-65-2
  source: icsc0913
  where: 'Header block: CAS #: 1310-65-2 and EC Number: 215-183-4'
tags:
  environments: []
  stresses: []
  applications:
    - habitats-and-suits
    - batteries
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density of the solid
    value: 2.54
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: crystalline solid, as listed in the ICSC physical data
      temperature: not printed
    method: Value printed in the ICSC card (printed there as g/cm³)
    status: ground
    source: icsc0913
    where: 'Physical and chemical information, Density: 2.54 g/cm³'
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point range
    value: 450
    value_high: 471
    bound: range
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: solid
      note: range printed as 450-471°C in the ICSC card
    method: Range printed in the ICSC card
    status: ground
    source: icsc0913
    where: 'Physical and chemical information, Melting point: 450-471°C'
  - benchmark: melting_point
    label: Melting point, PubChem value
    value: 473
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated in the record
    method: Experimental value listed in the PubChem record; the original reference is not shown in the record read
    status: ground
    note: The ICSC card gives 450-471 °C; the two sources disagree.
    source: pubchem-lioh
    where: 'Experimental Properties, Melting Point: 473 °C'
  - benchmark: decomposition_temperature
    label: Decomposition temperature
    value: 924
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      atmosphere: not stated
      note: 'ICSC: decomposes on heating above 924°C and produces toxic fumes'
    method: Value printed in the ICSC card
    status: ground
    source: icsc0913
    where: Physical and chemical information, Decomposes at 924°C; Chemical dangers
  - benchmark: boiling_point
    label: Boiling point, PubChem value
    value: 1626
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      pressure: 760 mm Hg
    method: Experimental value listed in the PubChem record
    status: ground
    note: The ICSC card reports decomposition at 924 °C instead of a boiling point, so this value has no second source.
    source: pubchem-lioh
    where: 'Experimental Properties, Boiling Point: 1626 °C @760 [mm Hg]'
  - benchmark: water_solubility
    label: Solubility in water at 20 °C
    value: 12.8
    unit: g/100ml
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      solvent: water
    method: Value printed in the ICSC card and repeated in the PubChem record
    status: ground
    source: icsc0913
    where: 'Physical and chemical information, Solubility in water, g/100ml at 20°C: 12.8 (good)'
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, PubChem value
    value: 2.54
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      form: not stated in the record
    method: Experimental value listed in the PubChem record (same figure as the ICSC card)
    status: ground
    note: The PubChem record also lists 1.45 @25 °C with no unit, which is not recorded here.
    source: pubchem-lioh
    where: 'Experimental Properties, Density: 2.54 g/cm³'
  - benchmark: enthalpy_of_formation
    label: Standard enthalpy of formation, gas
    value: -234.3
    unit: kJ/mol
    scope: material
    conditions:
      phase: gas
    method: Review value printed on the NIST WebBook (Chase, 1998; NIST notes data last reviewed in June, 1971)
    status: ground
    source: nist-webbook
    where: Gas phase thermochemistry data, row Δf H° gas
  - benchmark: standard_entropy
    label: Standard entropy, gas
    value: 210.67
    unit: J/mol*K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      phase: gas
      pressure: 1 bar
    method: Review value printed on the NIST WebBook (Chase, 1998)
    status: ground
    source: nist-webbook
    where: Gas phase thermochemistry data, row S° gas,1 bar
  - benchmark: enthalpy_of_formation
    label: Standard enthalpy of formation, solid
    value: -484.93
    unit: kJ/mol
    scope: material
    conditions:
      phase: solid
    method: Review value printed on the NIST WebBook (Chase, 1998)
    status: ground
    source: nist-webbook-cond
    where: Condensed phase thermochemistry data, row Δf H° solid
  - benchmark: standard_entropy
    label: Standard entropy, solid
    value: 42.81
    unit: J/mol*K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      phase: solid
      pressure: 1 bar
    method: Review value printed on the NIST WebBook (Chase, 1998)
    status: ground
    source: nist-webbook-cond
    where: Condensed phase thermochemistry data, row S° solid
  - benchmark: enthalpy_of_formation
    label: Standard enthalpy of formation, liquid
    value: -474.42
    unit: kJ/mol
    scope: material
    conditions:
      phase: liquid, as printed by NIST
    method: Review value printed on the NIST WebBook (Chase, 1998)
    status: ground
    source: nist-webbook-cond
    where: Condensed phase thermochemistry data, row Δf H° liquid
corrosion:
  - environment: Aluminium, tin and zinc in contact with aqueous LiOH
    headline: The ICSC card says LiOH is corrosive to aluminium, tin and zinc and that the reaction releases flammable hydrogen. It gives no corrosion rate.
    effect: ICSC 0913 says the solution reacts violently with acid and is corrosive to aluminium, tin and zinc, producing flammable or explosive hydrogen gas.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      form: aqueous solution (ICSC chemical dangers text)
      measurement: qualitative only; no corrosion rate printed
    source: icsc0913
    where: Physical and chemical information, Chemical dangers
  - environment: Ambient air with moisture and carbon dioxide during storage
    headline: LiOH takes up water and CO2 from air and forms lithium carbonate at the surface.
    effect: The 2026 LFP review says LiOH is hygroscopic and readily reacts with atmospheric CO2 to form Li2CO3 at the surface. PubChem's record, citing the Merck Index, says it readily absorbs carbon dioxide and water from air.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      exposure: air at ambient conditions; time and humidity not stated
      product: lithium carbonate (Li2CO3)
    source: yin2026
    where: Text on LiOH-derived precursors in the LFP synthesis discussion
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: 'ICSC 0913 classifies lithium hydroxide under UN GHS criteria with the signal word DANGER: fatal if inhaled, toxic if swallowed, and causes severe skin burns and eye damage.'
      ghs: []
      source: icsc0913
      where: Classification and labelling, According to UN GHS Criteria
    - text: PubChem's GHS summary, built from company notifications, lists H314 (causes severe skin burns and eye damage) with H301, H331 and H318 as other reported statements.
      ghs:
        - H314
        - H301
        - H331
        - H318
      source: pubchem-lioh
      where: Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification, Hazard Statements
    - text: 'PubChem''s hazards summary: corrosive to skin; high inhalation exposure can cause pulmonary edema; causes abnormal liver function test results in animal experiments.'
      ghs: []
      source: pubchem-lioh
      where: Safety and Hazards, Hazards Summary
    - text: ICSC warns that evaporation is negligible at 20 °C, but a harmful concentration of airborne particles can be reached quickly when the material is dispersed.
      ghs: []
      source: icsc0913
      where: Exposure and health effects, Inhalation risk
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Hydrogen release on contact with aluminium, tin or zinc
      trigger: Aqueous LiOH in contact with those metals
      consequence: ICSC says this produces flammable or explosive hydrogen gas.
      severity: moderate
      source: icsc0913
      where: Physical and chemical information, Chemical dangers
    - mode: Surface carbonation during storage
      trigger: Storage in moist air containing carbon dioxide
      consequence: LiOH forms lithium carbonate at the surface when it is exposed to atmospheric CO2.
      severity: low
      source: yin2026
      where: Text on LiOH-derived precursors in the LFP synthesis discussion
  side_effects:
    - text: Dilution with water may generate enough heat to cause steaming or spattering.
      affects: Operator and nearby containers
      source: pubchem-lioh
      where: Stability and Reactivity, Air and Water Reactions
  handling:
    - text: Store dry, tightly closed in the original container, separated from food and feedstuffs, strong oxidants and strong acids, and in an area without drain or sewer access (ICSC).
      source: icsc0913
      where: Storage
    - text: Prevent dust formation. Use local exhaust or breathing protection, protective gloves, protective clothing, and face shield or eye protection (ICSC).
      source: icsc0913
      where: Prevention and exposure control
    - text: For spills, sweep the substance into covered plastic containers and do not let it enter the environment (ICSC).
      source: icsc0913
      where: Spillage disposal
  mitigations:
    - text: 'Skin contact: remove contaminated clothes, rinse the skin with plenty of water or shower, and refer immediately for medical attention (ICSC first aid).'
      source: icsc0913
      where: First aid, Skin
    - text: 'Eye contact: rinse with plenty of water, remove contact lenses if easily possible, and refer immediately for medical attention (ICSC first aid).'
      source: icsc0913
      where: First aid, Eyes
uses:
  - application: habitats-and-suits
    device: Carbon dioxide scrubber canisters in a crewed spacecraft breathing loop (Space Shuttle)
    example: The 1989 Naval Academy report abstract calls LiOH the principal chemical absorbent used as a carbon dioxide scrubber material by NASA in the shuttle spacecraft.
    source: jaunsen1989
    where: Abstract, first sentence
  - application: habitats-and-suits
    device: Lunar module breathing-gas canisters (Apollo 13)
    example: Wikipedia says lithium hydroxide canisters in the lunar module were lifelines for the Apollo 13 astronauts.
    source: wikipedia-lioh
    where: Carbon dioxide scrubbing section (history)
  - application: batteries
    device: Lithium iron phosphate cathode precursor
    example: The 2026 LFP review lists LiOH·H2O among the common lithium precursors for LFP and says it is highly reactive, reacting with iron and phosphorus sources at low temperatures.
    source: yin2026
    where: LiOH-derived precursors text in the LFP synthesis discussion
  - application: batteries
    device: Alkaline storage batteries (PubChem use list)
    example: PubChem's use list includes alkaline storage batteries, lithium-based greases and carbon dioxide absorbents.
    source: pubchem-lioh
    where: Use and Manufacturing, Uses, Sources and Uses
supply:
  - subject: Lithium (feedstock for lithium hydroxide)
    abundance: Not stated in the USGS lithium chapter read in this run
    producers:
      - country: Australia
        share_percent: 31.7
        year: 2025
      - country: China
        share_percent: 21.4
        year: 2025
      - country: Chile
        share_percent: 19.3
        year: 2025
      - country: Zimbabwe
        share_percent: 9.7
        year: 2025
      - country: Argentina
        share_percent: 7.9
        year: 2025
    recycling: 'USGS: construction of lithium battery recycling plants continued throughout 2025.'
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-mcs2026-lithium
    where: 'World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025 (lithium content, metric tons): Australia 92,000; China 62,000; Chile 56,000; Zimbabwe 28,000; Argentina 23,000; world total 290,000 (rounded). Shares calculated by Space Mushroom against the world total.'
media: []
documents:
  - title: ICSC 0913, Lithium hydroxide (ILO and WHO international chemical safety card)
    type: sds
    url: https://inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0913.htm
    year: 2021
  - title: 'PubChem: Lithium hydroxide (CID 3939), GHS and toxicity summary'
    type: database
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/3939
  - title: 'NIST Chemistry WebBook: lithium hydroxide thermochemistry'
    type: database
    url: https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C1310652&Mask=1
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lithium.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: Comprehensive Review of Synthesis, Structure, and Electrochemical Performance of LiFePO4 (open access)
    type: paper
    url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13525353/
    year: 2026
  - title: Jaunsen 1989, The Behavior and Capabilities of Lithium Hydroxide Carbon Dioxide Scrubbers in a Deep Sea Environment
    type: report
    url: http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4998
    year: 1989
gaps:
  - No primary source for the 450 cm3 of carbon dioxide per gram figure was reached in this run. Wikipedia and its mirror give it, Wikipedia is limited here to history and composition, and the Jaunsen 1989 abstract does not print it, so it is not recorded.
  - No carbon dioxide breakthrough or absorption-capacity test was read from a primary source; only the Jaunsen 1989 abstract was reached, not the full report.
  - PubChem prints a density of 1.45 @25 °C with no unit, so it is not recorded; it disagrees with the ICSC value of 2.54 g/cm3 and no unit-confirmed second value was found.
  - Dehydration of the monohydrate on heating is stated only on Wikipedia in this run, so it is not recorded.
  - No corrosion rate was found for aluminium, tin or zinc; the ICSC card is qualitative.
  - No vacuum, radiation, thermal-cycling or flight-test data for LiOH were found in the sources read. The spacecraft uses above are historical and not quantified here.
  - The industrial production route (lithium carbonate with calcium hydroxide, or the sulfate and spodumene routes) is described only on Wikipedia in this run, so it is not recorded. No LiOH-specific production shares were found; the supply shares above are for lithium.
  - Decomposition temperature, water solubility, and the standard enthalpy and entropy rows use snake_case benchmark names, because no canonical name in spores/property-canon.yaml fits.
  - 'PubChem''s acute rat inhalation value (LC50 printed as 960 mg/m3/4hr) is not recorded: the verifier''s copy of the PubChem record does not contain that block, so the value cannot be checked here.'
  - CAS 1310-65-2 is the only identifier recorded. No UNS, EN, trade or other designation was read from a source in this run. UN number 2680 is printed by ICSC and PubChem but is not a designation system used here.
  - The USGS 2025 critical-minerals list and the EU critical raw materials list were not opened in this run, so no critical-list status is recorded for lithium.
  - Web-search budget for this turn was exhausted, so NASA NTRS reports, supplier safety data sheets and ECHA registration dossiers could not be located.
sources:
  icsc0913:
    title: 'ICSC 0913: Lithium hydroxide (International Chemical Safety Card, ILO and WHO)'
    id: ICSC 0913; CAS 1310-65-2; EC 215-183-4
    url: https://inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0913.htm
    year: 2021
    kind: datasheet
    license: ILO and WHO, cited
  pubchem-lioh:
    title: PubChem compound record, Lithium hydroxide (CID 3939), PUG View JSON
    id: CID 3939; CAS 1310-65-2
    url: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/3939/JSON
    kind: database
    license: public domain (NCBI)
  nist-webbook:
    title: 'NIST Chemistry WebBook, lithium hydroxide: gas phase thermochemistry data'
    id: NIST WebBook, SRD 69; CAS 1310-65-2
    url: https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C1310652&Mask=1
    kind: database
    license: NIST data compilation, cited
  nist-webbook-cond:
    title: 'NIST Chemistry WebBook, lithium hydroxide: condensed phase thermochemistry data'
    id: NIST WebBook, SRD 69; CAS 1310-65-2
    url: https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C1310652&Mask=2
    kind: database
    license: NIST data compilation, cited
  usgs-mcs2026-lithium:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Lithium
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lithium.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  yin2026:
    title: Comprehensive Review of Synthesis, Structure, and Electrochemical Performance of LiFePO4
    id: doi:10.1002/advs.77203 (Advanced Science, PMC13525353)
    url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13525353/
    year: 2026
    kind: paper
    license: CC BY 4.0
  jaunsen1989:
    title: The Behavior and Capabilities of Lithium Hydroxide Carbon Dioxide Scrubbers in a Deep Sea Environment (Naval Academy technical report)
    id: DTIC ADA216268; Rubicon Foundation archive item 4998
    url: http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4998
    year: 1989
    kind: report
    license: approved for public release (DTIC)
  wikipedia-lioh:
    title: 'Wikipedia: Lithium hydroxide (used for history and composition only)'
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-11-01'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 12
  unreachable: 0
  caveats: 3
  note: Read by an AI assistant on 2026-11-01 from ICSC 0913, the PubChem record, the NIST WebBook (gas and condensed phase), USGS MCS 2026 lithium and the 2026 LFP review (PMC13525353). The Jaunsen 1989 abstract was read through its archive page. Melting point, boiling point and LC50 caveats are noted in the file.
story:
  recipe:
    line: LiOH has one lithium, one oxygen and one hydrogen atom per formula unit, as written in the ICSC card (formula LiOH). How it is made is not recorded here.
    parts:
      - name: Lithium
        symbol: Li
        role: The alkali metal in the compound. At the surface it becomes lithium carbonate when LiOH reacts with carbon dioxide.
      - name: Oxygen
        symbol: O
        role: Part of the hydroxide group, which reacts with carbon dioxide in an absorber canister.
      - name: Hydrogen
        symbol: H
        role: Part of the hydroxide group, bonded to the oxygen atom.
  why: 'Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is a white, hygroscopic solid that takes carbon dioxide out of breathing gas. In spacecraft it served as the CO2 absorbent in Shuttle scrubbers (Jaunsen, 1989) and in lunar-module canisters on Apollo 13 (Wikipedia). It is also a lithium precursor for lithium iron phosphate cathodes (2026 review). Its handling hazards are serious: ICSC gives the signal word DANGER.'
  uses:
    - where: Spacecraft air scrubbing
      line: The 1989 Naval Academy report abstract calls LiOH the principal chemical absorbent used as a carbon dioxide scrubber material by NASA in the shuttle spacecraft. Wikipedia reports that LiOH canisters in the lunar module were lifelines for the Apollo 13 astronauts.
    - where: Lithium iron phosphate cathodes
      line: A 2026 review of LiFePO4 synthesis lists LiOH·H2O among the common lithium precursors. The review says LiOH is highly reactive and can react with iron and phosphorus sources at low temperatures.
    - where: Alkaline storage batteries
      line: PubChem's use list includes alkaline storage batteries, lithium-based greases and carbon dioxide absorbents.
  can_do:
    - label: Melting
      benchmark: melting_point
      line: ICSC gives a melting range of 450 to 471 °C. PubChem gives 473 °C. The two sources disagree, so both are recorded.
    - label: Solubility in water
      benchmark: water_solubility
      value: 12.8 g/100ml at 20 °C
      line: ICSC lists the solubility in water as 12.8 g per 100 ml at 20 °C and describes it as good.
    - label: Heat limit
      benchmark: decomposition_temperature
      line: ICSC says LiOH decomposes on heating above 924 °C and produces toxic fumes.
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
      value: 2.54 g/cm3
      line: ICSC gives a density of 2.54 g/cm3 for the crystalline solid.
  compare: LiOH is more reactive than lithium carbonate, the other common lithium source for LFP cathodes. The 2026 review describes lithium carbonate as chemically stable and as the dominant industrial source of lithium, while it describes LiOH as hygroscopic and as reacting with carbon dioxide at the surface. The same review notes that LiOH-derived LFP often shows improved rate capability in some syntheses. The table compares LiOH's density, melting point and solubility with the ranges printed in the record.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density of the solid
      benchmark: density
    - label: Melting point
      benchmark: melting_point
    - label: Water solubility at 20 °C
      benchmark: water_solubility
  handling:
    - Keep it dry and tightly closed in its original container. ICSC says to store it away from food, strong oxidants and strong acids.
    - Avoid dust. Use local exhaust or breathing protection, protective gloves, protective clothing and eye protection.
    - Do not let spills reach drains or the environment; sweep them into covered containers.
  good_for:
    - Carbon dioxide removal in a closed breathing loop, where the Shuttle used it as the principal absorbent (Jaunsen, 1989).
    - A lithium source for LFP cathode synthesis, where the 2026 review says it is highly reactive and can react at low temperatures.
  watch_out:
    - Corrosive and toxic. ICSC gives the signal word DANGER and warns that it is fatal if inhaled. PubChem's GHS summary lists H314.
    - It absorbs water and carbon dioxide from air and forms lithium carbonate at the surface.
    - It is corrosive to aluminium, tin and zinc and releases hydrogen on contact (ICSC). No corrosion rate was found.
  verdict: LiOH is a documented carbon dioxide absorbent for crewed spacecraft and a useful lithium precursor, but it is a corrosive solid that must be kept dry and handled with full protection.
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      level: 3
      verdict: Corrosive; toxic if swallowed or inhaled
      lead: 'ICSC gives the signal word DANGER: LiOH is fatal if inhaled, toxic if swallowed and causes severe skin burns and eye damage.'
      points:
        - label: Skin and eyes
          line: Causes severe skin burns and eye damage. Rinse with plenty of water and refer for medical attention at once (ICSC).
        - label: Inhalation
          line: Dust can reach a harmful airborne concentration quickly when dispersed. PubChem's summary records pulmonary edema after high inhalation exposure.
        - label: Ingestion
          line: Toxic if swallowed. Do not induce vomiting; give water to drink and refer for medical attention (ICSC).
    - title: On contact with water or metals
      level: 2
      verdict: Heat on dilution; hydrogen with some metals
      lead: Dilution and contact with some metals can both produce heat or hydrogen.
      points:
        - label: Dilution
          line: Dilution with water may generate enough heat to cause steaming or spattering (PubChem).
        - label: Metals
          line: Aluminium, tin and zinc are corroded and release flammable hydrogen (ICSC). The ICSC card gives no rate.
    - title: Storage
      level: 1
      verdict: Keep dry and closed
      lead: Moisture and carbon dioxide convert the surface to lithium carbonate (2026 review).
      points:
        - label: Container
          line: Store dry and well closed in the original container, away from food, oxidants and acids (ICSC).