spore: profile
id: electrical-steel
spore_version: 0.2
family: magnet-and-superconducting-alloys
name: Silicon electrical steel
abbreviation: Fe-Si
role: soft magnetic core
category: metals
type: magnet-alloys
summary: |
  Silicon electrical steel is an iron alloy with about 1 to 3.5 % silicon, rolled into thin strip and stacked as the laminated core of transformers, inductors, motors and generators. Silicon raises the electrical resistivity, which limits eddy-current loss at mains frequency. This profile covers the grain-oriented grade, about 3 % silicon, used for power transformers and inductors, and the non-oriented, fully processed grade used for rotating machines. The magnetic and mechanical values come from a 0.35 mm non-oriented grade (Tata Steel Hi-Lite NO35-1750H), and the density and composition from a Slovenian sheet safety data sheet. The grain-oriented values are limited to density and resistivity from a third-party listing, because no grain-oriented core-loss value with a printed unit was read in this run.
best_for: Laminated cores for transformers, inductors and rotating machines at 50 to 60 Hz, where low iron loss and a high flux density matter (Tata NO35-1750H, DOE)
weakest_at: 'Corrosion and strength: no corrosion rate was found, and the non-oriented grade has a typical yield strength of 435 MPa (Tata)'
identity:
  formula: 'Fe-Si: iron with silicon, balance Fe. Fully processed non-oriented family: 1.0 to 2.20 % Si, 0.10 to 0.4 % Mn, 0.55 % max Al, 0.18 % max P, 0.03 % max C (SIJ Acroni SDS). Grain-oriented: about 3 % Si, up to 3.2 mass % (DOE). Electrical steel generally: about 1 to 3.5 % Si (Wikipedia)'
  source: sij-sds
  where: Section 3, Composition table (SIJ Acroni SDS); DOE NETL datasheet, description; Wikipedia metallurgy section
tags:
  environments: []
  applications:
    - electronics-and-chips
    - mechanisms
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, assumed, NO35-1750H
    value: 7.6
    unit: kg/dm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H, 0.35 mm nominal thickness
      basis: assumed density printed in the datasheet
    method: Assumed density printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Density (assumed)
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, electrical steel sheet family
    value: 7.65
    value_high: 7.85
    bound: range
    unit: kg/dm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: range printed for electrical steel sheets; printed with a decimal comma in the source
      temperature: not stated
    method: Range printed in a safety data sheet
    status: ground
    source: sij-sds
    where: Section 9, Physical and chemical properties, row Density
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, grain-oriented Powercore C 150-30
    value: 7.65
    unit: g/cm3
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: Powercore C 150-30, grain-oriented
      temperature: 23.0 C
    method: Value printed on a third-party product listing that does not name its maker
    status: ground
    source: powercore-c150
    where: Material properties table, row Density, 23.0 C
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity at 23 C, NO35-1750H
    value: 59
    unit: µΩ·cm
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      temperature: 23 C
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Electrical resistivity at 23 C
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity at 23 C, grain-oriented
    value: 48
    unit: µΩ·cm
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: Powercore C 150-30, grain-oriented
      temperature: 23.0 C
      unit_in_source: 4.8 x 10^-7 ohm m
    method: Printed as 4.8 x 10^-7 ohm m and converted by Space Mushroom to µΩ·cm (1 ohm m equals 100 ohm cm, so 4.8 x 10^-7 ohm m equals 48 µΩ·cm)
    status: ground
    source: powercore-c150
    where: Material properties table, row Electrical resistivity, 23.0 C
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity at 23 C, NO35-1750H
    value: 21
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      temperature: 23 C
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Thermal conductivity at 23 C
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Thermal expansion, 0 to 100 C, NO35-1750H
    value: 12
    unit: 10-6/C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      temperature: 0 to 100 C
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Thermal expansion 0-100 C
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Young's modulus, NO35-1750H, rolling direction
    value: 185
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      direction: rolling direction; transverse direction about 2 % higher
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Young's modulus
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Yield strength Rp0.2, typical, NO35-1750H
    value: 435
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      measure: Rp0.2
      direction: rolling direction
      basis: typical; guaranteed minimum 390 MPa in the same table
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Yield strength Rp0.2, typical values column
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Tensile strength Rm, typical, NO35-1750H
    value: 535
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      direction: rolling direction
      basis: typical; guaranteed minimum 500 MPa in the same table
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Tensile strength Rm, typical values column
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation at fracture A80, typical, NO35-1750H
    value: 17
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      gauge_length: A80
      basis: typical; guaranteed minimum 12 % in the same table
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Physical and mechanical properties table, row Elongation at fracture A80
  - benchmark: specific_total_loss
    label: Specific total loss at 1.5 T and 50 Hz, typical
    value: 2.11
    unit: W/kg
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      flux_density: 1.5 T
      frequency: 50 Hz
      basis: typical; no guaranteed maximum printed
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Magnetic properties table, row Specific total loss at 1.5 T and 50 Hz
  - benchmark: specific_total_loss
    label: Specific total loss at 1.0 T and 50 Hz, typical
    value: 0.88
    unit: W/kg
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      flux_density: 1.0 T
      frequency: 50 Hz
      basis: typical; no guaranteed maximum printed
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Magnetic properties table, row Specific total loss at 1.0 T and 50 Hz
  - benchmark: peak_polarisation
    label: Peak magnetic polarisation at 2500 A/m and 50 Hz, typical
    value: 1.56
    unit: T
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      field: 2500 A/m
      frequency: 50 Hz
      basis: typical; guaranteed minimum 1.52 T
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Magnetic properties table, row Peak magnetic polarisation at 2500 A/m and 50 Hz
  - benchmark: peak_polarisation
    label: Peak magnetic polarisation at 5000 A/m and 50 Hz, typical
    value: 1.65
    unit: T
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      field: 5000 A/m
      frequency: 50 Hz
      basis: typical; guaranteed minimum 1.62 T
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Magnetic properties table, row Peak magnetic polarisation at 5000 A/m and 50 Hz
  - benchmark: relative_peak_permeability
    label: Relative peak permeability at 1.5 T and 50 Hz, typical
    value: 820
    unit: '-'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      grade: NO35-1750H
      flux_density: 1.5 T
      frequency: 50 Hz
    method: Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet
    status: ground
    source: tata-no35
    where: Magnetic properties table, row Relative peak permeability at 1.5 T and 50 Hz
corrosion:
  - environment: Air and water, semi-processed sheet
    headline: The safety data sheet lists air and water as materials to avoid for semi-processed sheet, with no rate given.
    effect: SIJ Acroni lists air and water among the materials to avoid for semi-processed electrical steel sheets. It says no specific storage procedure is needed for bulk solid steel products. No corrosion rate, humidity test or change in magnetic properties is printed in the source.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      grade: semi-processed electrical steel sheet
      exposure: not stated
      basis: one-line statement in a safety data sheet
    source: sij-sds
    where: Section 9, Materials to avoid; section 7.2
  - environment: Dry-type transformer core, indoor and outdoor
    headline: The core laminations are said to be especially susceptible to corrosion in service.
    effect: The article says dry-type transformers are often exposed to corrosive conditions indoors and outdoors. It says rain, snow, dust, pollution, ultraviolet light and sea salt break down the protective coating, and that laminations are especially susceptible when high operating temperature and vibration act with those factors. It gives no test data, no rate and no coating type.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      basis: qualitative introduction of a trade magazine article; the rest is behind a subscription wall
    source: transformer-sakr2020
    where: Section 1, Introduction
  - environment: Strong acids, including hydrofluoric acid
    headline: The sheet dissolves in hydrofluoric acid and gives off hydrogen with strong acids.
    effect: The safety data sheet says the sheet dissolves in hydrofluoric acid, and that a reaction with strong acids generates hydrogen gas and heat. No rate or concentration is given.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      acid: hydrofluoric acid and strong acids; concentration not stated
    source: sij-sds
    where: Sections 7.3 and 10
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: The SIJ Acroni safety data sheet treats solid electrical steel as an article, not a hazardous material, with no GHS label. Fumes and dust from cutting, grinding, melting or welding can irritate the airways and cause metal fume fever.
      ghs: []
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 2, Hazards identification; section 11, Inhalation
    - text: The same safety data sheet says dust can form an explosive mixture in air and may cause sensitization by inhalation and skin contact.
      ghs: []
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 5.2, Special hazards arising from the substance
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Rust during storage in air and water
      trigger: Storage or handling of semi-processed sheet in air and water
      consequence: The safety data sheet lists air and water as materials to avoid for semi-processed sheet. The source states no magnetic or mechanical effect.
      severity: moderate
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 9, Materials to avoid
  side_effects:
    - text: The sheet can be recycled 100 % and scrap is valued for new electrical steel, according to the safety data sheet.
      affects: Waste handling of cuttings and dust
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 12, Other adverse effects
  handling:
    - text: The safety data sheet says there are no special handling measures for solid sheet. Use gloves and eye protection against sharp edges, and avoid breathing dust or fumes during processing.
      source: sij-sds
      where: Sections 7 and 7.1
    - text: Local or general exhaust ventilation should be used during welding, brazing, machining and other processes that generate airborne contaminants.
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 8.2, Exposure control
  mitigations:
    - text: Dust or fume respirators can be used where exhaust ventilation cannot keep exposure below the limits, according to the safety data sheet.
      source: sij-sds
      where: Section 8.2, Exposure control
uses:
  - application: electronics-and-chips
    device: Power transformers and inductors, grain-oriented sheet of about 3 % silicon
    example: The DOE NETL datasheet says 3 % silicon steel is best used in electrical power transformers and inductors. Silicon up to 3.2 mass % raises electrical resistivity and reduces eddy-current loss.
    source: netl-core
    where: First page, description
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Rotating electric machines, non-oriented fully processed sheet
    example: The SIJ Acroni data sheet says non-oriented electrical steels are used for electric equipment with rotating magnetic fields, and fully processed sheet is also used for static electrical devices.
    source: sij-sds
    where: Section 1.2, Relevant identified uses
supply:
  - subject: Silicon, as ferrosilicon for steel
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 70
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 8.4
        year: 2025
      - country: Brazil
        share_percent: 3.4
        year: 2025
      - country: Norway
        share_percent: 3
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 Final List of Critical Minerals (silicon added in 2025)
        listed: true
    recycling: 'USGS: recycling of ferrosilicon is insignificant.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: aluminum, silicon carbide and silicomanganese can be substituted for ferrosilicon in some applications.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-silicon
    where: 'World Production table, ferrosilicon 2025 column, thousand metric tons: China 3,500; Russia 420; Brazil 170; Norway 150; world total (rounded) 5,000. Shares calculated by Space Mushroom. Domestic Production and Use and Recycling and Substitutes sections.'
  - subject: Iron (balance of the alloy)
    producers:
      - country: Australia
        share_percent: 37.5
        year: 2025
      - country: Brazil
        share_percent: 16.3
        year: 2025
      - country: India
        share_percent: 11.9
        year: 2025
      - country: China
        share_percent: 11.3
        year: 2025
    critical_lists: []
    recycling: 'USGS iron ore chapter: ''None''. It refers readers to the Iron and Steel Scrap chapter.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: the only source of primary iron is iron ore. Direct-reduced iron, iron nuggets and scrap are used extensively for steelmaking in electric arc furnaces.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-iron-ore
    where: 'World Mine Production and Reserves table, iron content 2025e, thousand metric tons: Australia 600,000; Brazil 260,000; India 190,000; China 180,000; world total (rounded) 1,600,000. Shares calculated by Space Mushroom. Recycling and Substitutes sections.'
documents:
  - title: Surahammars Bruk (Tata Steel), Hi-Lite NO35-1750H data sheet, thin non-oriented electrical steel
    type: datasheet
    url: https://tatasteeluk.com/ts/sites/default/files/tata-steel-hi-lite-electrical-steel-no35-1750h-datasheet-en.pdf
    year: 2019
  - title: SIJ Acroni safety data sheet, Electrical steel sheets (REACH Article 32, revision 2.11.2016)
    type: sds
    url: https://cms.sij.si/storage/607/SDS-ELECTRICAL-STEEL-SHEET-November-16.pdf
    year: 2016
  - title: DOE NETL, 3% Silicon Steel Core Material datasheet (grain-oriented)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/Core-Loss-Datasheet---3-percent%5B1%5D.pdf
    year: 2018
  - title: Powercore C 150-30, high-performance grain-oriented electrical steel listing
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.mfgrobots.com/Article/material/metal/39971.html
  - title: Aiman Sakr, Corrosion protection of core steel in dry-type transformers, Transformer Magazine
    type: report
    url: https://transformer-magazine.com/magazine/7244-protection-of-core-steel/
    year: 2020
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Silicon'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-silicon.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Iron Ore'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-iron-ore.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'Wikipedia: Silicon steel (composition ranges only)'
    type: report
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_steel
gaps:
  - No grain-oriented core-loss value with a printed unit was found. The Powercore listing prints its core-loss rows with the unit [-], so no core-loss value is taken from it, and the Nippon Steel grain-oriented table could not be reached (the host did not resolve).
  - The DOE NETL core datasheet prints a chemistry line of Fe94.2 Si5.8 that conflicts with its own text (silicon up to 3.2 mass %), and it gives no density or resistivity, so no value is taken from its chemistry line.
  - The silicon content of the NO35-1750H grade is not printed in the Tata datasheet, so its values apply to that grade only and not to a 3 % silicon grade.
  - No melting point or Curie temperature was found in any source read. The SDS melting point field is blank, and its boiling point (about 2800 C) is not used because it is not a figure for this alloy.
  - No designations (UNS, EN, JIS, ASTM) were added. The sources read do not print a code for this class or for the Tata grade. ASTM A876 was seen only in search snippets and was not opened.
  - No open-access paper on core loss against silicon content was opened. The search returned patents and vendor pages only, so no paper is cited.
  - No corrosion rate, humidity test or salt-spray result was found. The RSC silicon steel corrosion article returned HTTP 403 when fetched, and the transformer magazine article is behind a subscription wall after its introduction.
  - PubChem records for silicon and iron could not be retrieved in this run (the page showed a browser check and the REST query returned no data), so no GHS classification is cited for the element.
  - No space or vacuum result was found for this material, including outgassing, radiation, thermal cycling and cold welding.
  - Critical-mineral status for iron was not checked against the 2025 final list, so critical_lists is empty for iron. The EU critical raw materials list was not checked for silicon or iron.
  - The severity values in failure_risks and the corrosion ratings are judgments from the source text, not measured values.
  - The 1 to 3.5 % silicon range and the 3 % grain-oriented figure come from Wikipedia, which is used here for composition only.
  - No images were checked for this profile, so no media entry was added.
sources:
  tata-no35:
    title: Surahammars Bruk (Tata Steel), Hi-Lite NO35-1750H data sheet, thin non-oriented electrical steel
    url: https://tatasteeluk.com/ts/sites/default/files/tata-steel-hi-lite-electrical-steel-no35-1750h-datasheet-en.pdf
    year: 2019
    kind: datasheet
    license: Manufacturer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)
  sij-sds:
    title: SIJ Acroni safety data sheet, Electrical steel sheets (REACH Article 32, revision 2.11.2016)
    url: https://cms.sij.si/storage/607/SDS-ELECTRICAL-STEEL-SHEET-November-16.pdf
    year: 2016
    kind: datasheet
    license: Supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)
  netl-core:
    title: DOE NETL, 3% Silicon Steel Core Material datasheet (grain-oriented)
    url: https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/Core-Loss-Datasheet---3-percent%5B1%5D.pdf
    year: 2018
    kind: datasheet
    license: US government work (public domain)
  powercore-c150:
    title: Powercore C 150-30, high-performance grain-oriented electrical steel listing
    url: https://www.mfgrobots.com/Article/material/metal/39971.html
    kind: web
    license: Third-party listing (cited, not reproduced)
  transformer-sakr2020:
    title: Aiman Sakr, Corrosion protection of core steel in dry-type transformers, Transformer Magazine
    url: https://transformer-magazine.com/magazine/7244-protection-of-core-steel/
    year: 2020
    kind: web
    license: Trade magazine article (cited, not reproduced)
  usgs-mcs2026-silicon:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Silicon
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-silicon.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-mcs2026-iron-ore:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Iron Ore
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-iron-ore.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  wikipedia-silicon-steel:
    title: 'Wikipedia: Silicon steel'
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_steel
    kind: web
    license: CC BY-SA (cited, not reproduced)
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-26'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 16
  unreachable: 3
  caveats: 5
  note: 'Values were read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the datasheets, safety data sheets, USGS reports and web pages named in each entry. verify-values: 3 of 16 values matched their source text; the 13 Tata NO35-1750H values could not be machine-checked because the Tata host returns HTTP 403 to curl, so they were checked by hand against the PDF text read in this run. Caveats: the magnetic and mechanical values are for one 0.35 mm non-oriented grade (NO35-1750H), not a 3 % silicon grade; the grain-oriented values are density and resistivity from a third-party listing; the corrosion ratings are unknown because no quantitative test was read; the hazard entries rest on one supplier safety data sheet; no PubChem record was read.'
story:
  recipe:
    line: Silicon electrical steel is iron with about 1 to 3.5 % silicon (Wikipedia). The grain-oriented grade is usually about 3 % silicon, and the sheet is textured during cold rolling so the best magnetic properties form along the rolling direction (DOE, Wikipedia). The fully processed non-oriented family in the SIJ Acroni data sheet has 1.0 to 2.20 % silicon, with small manganese, aluminium, carbon and phosphorus, and the rest iron.
    parts:
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share_note: balance of the alloy
        role: Base metal, the balance of the composition.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Iron balance
      - name: Silicon
        symbol: Si
        share_note: 1.0 to 2.20 % in the SIJ non-oriented family; up to 3.2 mass % in the DOE grain-oriented core; about 3 % in grain-oriented grades (Wikipedia)
        role: Raises the electrical resistivity, which cuts eddy-current loss.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Silicon row; DOE NETL datasheet, description
      - name: Manganese
        symbol: Mn
        share_note: 0.10 to 0.4 %
        role: Minor element in the composition table.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Manganese row
      - name: Aluminium
        symbol: Al
        share_note: 0.55 % max
        role: Minor element in the non-oriented family.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Aluminium row
      - name: Phosphorus
        symbol: P
        share_note: 0.18 % max
        role: Minor element in the non-oriented family.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Phosphorus row
      - name: Carbon
        symbol: C
        share_note: 0.03 % max
        role: Minor element; the composition table gives a maximum only.
        source: sij-sds
        where: Section 3, Composition table, Carbon row
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      level: 0
      verdict: Not hazardous as a solid
      lead: The safety data sheet treats the solid sheet as an article that is not hazardous. The risk comes from fumes and dust made during processing.
      points:
        - label: Solid sheet
          line: The SIJ Acroni data sheet classifies the solid sheet as non-hazardous, with no GHS label.
        - label: Cutting and welding
          line: Cutting, grinding, melting or welding can give off metal oxide fumes that cause metal fume fever, and dust can irritate the eyes, skin and airways.
        - label: Dust
          line: The same data sheet says dust can form an explosive mixture in air and may cause sensitization.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: The sources read here give a storage and corrosion risk and no flight failure record.
      points:
        - label: Rust
          line: The safety data sheet lists air and water as materials to avoid for semi-processed sheet. No rate is given.
        - label: Transformer core
          line: A trade magazine article says the laminations of dry-type transformers are especially susceptible to corrosion in service, but it gives no test data.
    - title: Handling and storage
      points:
        - label: Storage
          line: No special storage procedure is needed for bulk solid sheet, according to the safety data sheet.
        - label: Acids
          line: The sheet dissolves in hydrofluoric acid, and a reaction with strong acids generates hydrogen and heat.
  why: Silicon electrical steel is used as the laminated core of transformers, inductors, motors and generators (DOE, SIJ). Silicon adds electrical resistivity, which limits eddy-current loss at 50 to 60 Hz (DOE). The grain-oriented grade is used mainly for static equipment such as transformers and inductors, and the non-oriented grade for rotating machines (DOE, SIJ).
  uses:
    - where: Power transformers and inductors
      line: The DOE NETL datasheet says 3 % silicon steel is best used in electrical power transformers and inductors, and that silicon up to 3.2 mass % reduces eddy-current loss.
    - where: Electric motors and generators
      line: The SIJ Acroni data sheet says non-oriented electrical steels are used in electric equipment with rotating magnetic fields.
  can_do:
    - label: Low loss at mains frequency
      value: 2.11 W/kg at 1.5 T and 50 Hz
      benchmark: specific_total_loss
      line: The Tata NO35-1750H grade, 0.35 mm thick, has a typical total loss of 2.11 W/kg at 1.5 T and 50 Hz, and 0.88 W/kg at 1.0 T.
    - label: Flux density
      value: 1.65 T at 5000 A/m
      benchmark: peak_polarisation
      line: The same grade gives a typical peak polarisation of 1.56 T at 2500 A/m and 1.65 T at 5000 A/m at 50 Hz, with guaranteed minimums of 1.52 T and 1.62 T.
    - label: Resistivity
      value: 59 µΩ·cm at 23 C
      benchmark: electrical_resistivity
      line: Silicon raises resistivity. The NO35-1750H grade has 59 µΩ·cm at 23 C, and the grain-oriented listing has 48 µΩ·cm at 23.0 C.
    - label: Density
      value: 7.6 kg/dm3
      benchmark: density
      line: The NO35-1750H grade has an assumed density of 7.6 kg/dm3. The safety data sheet gives 7.65 to 7.85 kg/dm3, and the grain-oriented listing gives 7.65 g/cm3.
  compare: Among the sources read, the non-oriented Tata grade has a typical total loss of 2.11 W/kg at 1.5 T and 50 Hz and a typical relative peak permeability of 820 at 1.5 T. The grain-oriented listing gives a lower resistivity than the non-oriented grade at 23 C, 48 µΩ·cm against 59 µΩ·cm, and a density of 7.65 g/cm3. The grain-oriented core-loss value could not be taken with a printed unit in this run, so the two grades cannot be compared on loss here.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Electrical resistivity
      benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    - label: Total loss at 1.5 T and 50 Hz
      benchmark: specific_total_loss
  handling:
    - Wear gloves and eye protection, and avoid breathing dust or fumes during cutting, grinding or welding.
    - Use exhaust ventilation during welding, brazing and machining, or dust respirators where ventilation is not enough.
    - The safety data sheet lists air and water as materials to avoid for semi-processed sheet.
    - Keep the sheet away from hydrofluoric and other strong acids.
  good_for:
    - Laminated cores for power transformers and inductors at 50 to 60 Hz, as the DOE datasheet describes.
    - Rotating machine cores using the fully processed non-oriented grade, as the SIJ data sheet describes.
  watch_out:
    - 'Iron loss rises with flux density: the NO35-1750H grade goes from 0.88 W/kg at 1.0 T to 2.11 W/kg at 1.5 T at 50 Hz.'
    - No corrosion rate was found. A trade magazine article says transformer laminations are especially susceptible in service.
    - Dust can form an explosive mixture in air, according to the safety data sheet.
  verdict: Silicon electrical steel is the lamination material for transformer and motor cores. Silicon lowers eddy-current loss. The grain-oriented grade serves transformers and inductors, and the fully processed grade serves rotating machines. The sources read give typical magnetic and mechanical values for a 0.35 mm non-oriented grade, density and resistivity for a grain-oriented listing, and a safety data sheet that treats the solid sheet as non-hazardous. No corrosion data and no space flight record were found in this run.