spore: profile
id: aluminium-2024
spore_version: 0.2
family: aluminium-alloys
name: Aluminium alloy 2024
abbreviation: '2024'
role: aircraft structural alloy
category: metals
type: aluminium
summary: |
  2024 is a wrought aluminium alloy whose main addition is copper, with smaller amounts of magnesium and manganese (an Al-Cu-Mg alloy, UNS A92024). The printed ASM datasheet gives a typical tensile yield strength of 324 MPa and a density of 2.78 g/cc for the T4 record. A 1981 NASA seacoast test found the 2024-T351 temper highly susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking. The USGS 2025 list of critical minerals includes both copper and aluminum.
best_for: A high-strength wrought aluminium alloy for aircraft fittings and structural parts (the datasheets list these uses; ASM typical T4 yield strength is 324 MPa)
weakest_at: Stress-corrosion cracking of the 2024-T351 temper in seacoast and salt-water conditions (NASA 1981), and pitting in salt water
identity:
  formula: 'Al-Cu-Mg alloy (AA 2024, UNS A92024); composition limits in wt%: Cu 3.8 to 4.9, Mg 1.2 to 1.8, Mn 0.3 to 0.9, Si max 0.5, Fe max 0.5, Cr max 0.1, Zn max 0.25, Ti max 0.15, Al balance'
  source: asm-2024
  where: 'Composition table of the printed ASM Material Data Sheet for Aluminum 2024-T4 and 2024-T351 (Aluminum Association data, not for design). Nominal composition on the Aubert and Duval 2024 datasheet: Cu 4.4, Mg 1.5, Mn 0.6 wt%. Heat treatment on the same datasheet: solution treatment 493 °C, water quench, then ageing to the required properties.'
  designations:
    - system: UNS
      code: A92024
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, UNS A92024
    - system: EN name
      code: AW-2024
      source: aubert-2024
      where: European Standards line, EN AW-2024 (Al Cu4Mg1)
    - system: EN name
      code: AlCu4Mg1
      note: Chemical-symbol form of EN AW-2024, printed in brackets as Al Cu4Mg1 on the Aubert and Duval datasheet
      source: aubert-2024
      where: European Standards line, bracketed name (Al Cu4Mg1)
    - system: ISO
      code: AlCu4Mg1
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, ISO AlCu4Mg1
    - system: EN
      code: '3.1355'
      note: 'Material number as printed on the Total Materia page for DIN 3.1355 (DIN 1725-1: 1983 is cited there). The ASM copy prints the DIN name AlCuMg2 instead.'
      source: totalmateria-din-3-1355
      where: Material name heading DIN 3.1355; the EN AW-2024 row of the cross-reference list names DIN among its standards
    - system: DIN
      code: AlCuMg2
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, DIN AlCuMg2
    - system: AFNOR
      code: A-U4G1
      note: French (NF) designation as printed in the ASM copy. The Aubert and Duval datasheet prints the previous AFNOR designation as AU4G1.
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, NF A-U4G1 (France)
    - system: AA
      code: '2024'
      note: Aluminum Association designation as printed (AA2024-T4 and AA2024-T351 in the ASM copy). Tempers are conditions of the properties, not separate designations.
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, AA2024-T4 and AA2024-T351
    - system: CSA
      code: CG42
      note: Canadian designation as printed in the ASM copy
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, CSA CG42 (Canada)
    - system: ASME
      code: SB211
      note: Printed as ASME SB211 in the ASM copy and as SB-211 2024 on the Total Materia list. Not checked against ASME.
      source: asm-2024
      where: Key Words line, ASME SB211
    - system: ASTM
      code: B209
      note: Sheet and plate. The EverySpec title for QQ-A-250/4E (Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet) cross-refers ASTM B209. Total Materia also prints B 209 2024.
      source: everyspec-qq-a-250-4e
      where: Title note, [S/S BY SAE AMSQQ-A-250/4 and ASTM B209]
    - system: ASTM
      code: B221
      note: Extruded products (Extruded column of Kaiser's applicable specifications)
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Extruded column
    - system: ASTM
      code: B211
      note: Cold-finished rod and bar (Cold Finished column of Kaiser's applicable specifications)
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Cold Finished column
    - system: AMS
      code: '4037'
      note: Sheet and plate, solution heat treated, -T3 flat sheet and -T351 plate. The SAE page shows revision R (revised August 2020), with earlier letters listed as historical.
      source: sae-ams4037r
      where: Title, AMS4037R Aluminum Alloy, Sheet and Plate 4.4Cu - 1.5Mg - 0.60Mn (2024; -T3 Flat Sheet, -T351 Plate)
    - system: AMS
      code: QQ-A-250/4
      note: SAE version of the 2024 plate and sheet spec. The SAE page shows revision A, reaffirmed May 2010, and lists a later revision B. EverySpec prints the AMS form as AMSQQ-A-250/4 in its title note.
      source: sae-amsqqa250-4a
      where: Title, AMSQQA250/4A Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet; scope refers to AMS-QQ-A-250
    - system: US federal
      code: QQ-A-250/4
      note: Federal specification QQ-A-250/4E (18 January 1971). EverySpec shows its status as Cancelled.
      source: everyspec-qq-a-250-4e
      where: 'Title, QQ-A-250/4E, Federal Specification: Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet (18-JAN-1971)'
    - system: AMS
      code: QQ-A-225/6
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Cold Finished. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Cold Finished column (AMS-QQ-A-225/6)
    - system: AMS
      code: QQ-A-200/3
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Extruded. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Extruded column (AMS-QQ-A-200/3)
    - system: AMS
      code: '4339'
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Cold Finished. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Cold Finished column
    - system: AMS
      code: '4120'
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Cold Finished. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Cold Finished column
    - system: AMS
      code: '4152'
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Extruded. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Extruded column
    - system: AMS
      code: '4164'
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Extruded. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Extruded column
    - system: AMS
      code: '4165'
      note: Listed by Kaiser under Extruded. Title not read in this run.
      source: kaiser-rod-bar-2024
      where: Applicable specifications table, Extruded column
tags:
  stresses:
    - stress-corrosion-cracking
    - pitting-corrosion
  applications:
    - structures
    - mechanisms
properties:
  - benchmark: density
    label: Density, typical
    value: 2.78
    unit: g/cc
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value, marked NOT FOR DESIGN
      temperature: not stated
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4; the printed title also names T351, but the table is not split by temper)
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet (ASM Material Data Sheet copy)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Physical Properties table, row Density (AA; Typical)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Tensile yield strength, typical, T4 record
    value: 324
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4; the printed title also names T351, but the table is not split by temper)
      product_form: not stated
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value, marked NOT FOR DESIGN
      temperature: not stated
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet (ASM Material Data Sheet copy)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Tensile Yield Strength (AA; Typical), 47000 psi
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Ultimate tensile strength, typical, T4 record
    value: 469
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4; the printed title also names T351, but the table is not split by temper)
      product_form: not stated
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value, marked NOT FOR DESIGN
      temperature: not stated
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet (ASM Material Data Sheet copy)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Ultimate Tensile Strength (AA; Typical), 68000 psi
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation at break, 1/2 in. diameter specimen, T4 record
    value: 19
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      specimen: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Elongation at Break (first entry, 1/2 in. diameter)
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation at break, 1/16 in. thick specimen, T4 record
    value: 20
    unit: '%'
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      specimen: 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) thickness
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Elongation at Break (second entry, 1/16 in. thickness)
  - benchmark: elastic_modulus
    label: Modulus of elasticity, T4 record
    value: 73.1
    unit: GPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value; average of tension and compression, compression about 2 % greater than tension (datasheet comment)
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Modulus of Elasticity (10600 ksi)
  - benchmark: fatigue_strength
    label: Fatigue strength at 500,000,000 cycles, T4 record
    value: 138
    unit: MPa
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      loading: completely reversed stress
      test: RR Moore machine and specimen
      cycles: 500,000,000
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Fatigue Strength (20000 psi)
  - benchmark: fracture_toughness
    label: Plane-strain fracture toughness K(IC), T-L direction, T4 record
    value: 32
    unit: MPa-m½
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      direction: T-L
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value; the same table lists 26 MPa-m½ for S-L and 37 MPa-m½ for L-T
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet; fracture_toughness is not a name in the property canon, so it is used as a short snake_case name (see gaps)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Mechanical Properties table, row Fracture Toughness, K(IC) in T-L Direction (29.1 ksi-in½)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity at 77 °F, T4 record
    value: 121
    unit: W/m-K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 77 °F
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Thermal Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity (840 BTU-in/hr-ft2-°F)
  - benchmark: thermal_conductivity
    label: Thermal conductivity at 20 °C, T4 condition
    value: 120
    unit: W/(m·K)
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 20 °C
      temper: T4 condition (as printed on the datasheet)
      product_form: forged, thickness below 75 mm (the datasheet's typical properties block)
      unit_in_source: W.m/m2.°C, equal to W/(m·K)
    method: Typical value listed in a manufacturer datasheet (Aubert and Duval)
    status: ground
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Physical properties, thermal conductivity at 20 °C (120, T4 condition)
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 68 to 212 °F, T4 record
    value: 23.2
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature_range: 68 to 212 °F (20 to 100 °C)
      unit_in_source: µm/m-°C, equal to ppm/K
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value, average over 68 to 212 °F
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Thermal Properties table, row CTE, linear 68°F
  - benchmark: cte
    label: Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 100 °C, T4 condition
    value: 22.9
    unit: ppm/K
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature_range: 20 to 100 °C
      unit_in_source: x 10-6 m/m.°C, equal to ppm/K
      temper: T4 condition (as printed)
      product_form: forged, thickness below 75 mm
    method: Typical value listed in a manufacturer datasheet (Aubert and Duval)
    status: ground
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Physical properties, mean coefficient of expansion between 20°C and 100°C (22.9 x 10-6)
  - benchmark: specific_heat
    label: Specific heat capacity
    value: 0.875
    unit: J/g-°C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: not stated
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Processing and thermal table, row Specific Heat Capacity (0.209 BTU/lb-°F)
  - benchmark: electrical_resistivity
    label: Electrical resistivity at 68 °F
    value: 5.82
    unit: µΩ·cm
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temperature: 68 °F
      unit_in_source: 5.82e-006 ohm-cm, equal to 5.82 µΩ·cm
      temper: T4 (MatWeb record key ma2024t4)
      basis: Aluminum Association typical value
    method: Typical value listed in a printed datasheet; converted from ohm-cm to µΩ·cm by Space Mushroom (1 ohm-cm = 1e6 µΩ·cm)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Electrical Properties table, row Electrical Resistivity (AA; Typical at 68°F)
  - benchmark: melting_range
    label: Melting range (solidus to liquidus)
    value: 502
    value_high: 638
    bound: range
    unit: °C
    scope: material
    conditions:
      basis: typical range for wrought products 1/4 inch thickness or greater; eutectic melting is not eliminated by homogenization (datasheet comment)
      temper: not stated
    method: Typical range listed in a printed datasheet (solidus 502 °C, liquidus 638 °C)
    status: ground
    source: asm-2024
    where: Thermal Properties table, rows Melting Point, Solidus and Liquidus
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Tensile yield strength, lower bound, T4 forged, thickness below 75 mm
    value: 260
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 condition (as printed)
      product_form: forged, thickness below 75 mm
      direction: longitudinal
      temperature: ambient
      printed_as: '>260 N/mm2'
    method: Value printed as a lower limit under Typical mechanical properties in a manufacturer datasheet (Aubert and Duval)
    status: ground
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Typical mechanical properties block, 0.2 % Yield strength (>260 N/mm2)
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Ultimate tensile strength, lower bound, T4 forged, thickness below 75 mm
    value: 420
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 condition (as printed)
      product_form: forged, thickness below 75 mm
      direction: longitudinal
      temperature: ambient
      printed_as: '>420 N/mm2'
    method: Value printed as a lower limit under Typical mechanical properties in a manufacturer datasheet (Aubert and Duval)
    status: ground
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Typical mechanical properties block, UTS (>420 N/mm2)
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Elongation (5d), lower bound, T4 forged, thickness below 75 mm
    value: 8
    unit: '%'
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T4 condition (as printed)
      product_form: forged, thickness below 75 mm
      direction: longitudinal
      temperature: ambient
      printed_as: '>8 %'
    method: Value printed as a lower limit under Typical mechanical properties in a manufacturer datasheet (Aubert and Duval)
    status: ground
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Typical mechanical properties block, Elongation (5d) (>8 %)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Minimum 0.2 % proof stress, 2024-T351 plate, 6 to 25 mm, LT
    value: 280
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 6 to 25 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet (the column is headed min, under a heading Typical Mechanical Properties)
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 6-25 mm, LT, 0.2% Proof Stress min N/mm2
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Minimum tensile strength, 2024-T351 plate, 6 to 25 mm, LT
    value: 430
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 6 to 25 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 6-25 mm, LT, Tensile Strength min N/mm2
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Minimum elongation on 5.65 root-S, 2024-T351 plate, 6 to 25 mm, LT
    value: 10
    unit: '%'
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 6 to 25 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      gauge: 5.65 times square root of original area
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 6-25 mm, LT, Elongation on 5.65v (min%)
  - benchmark: yield_strength
    label: Minimum 0.2 % proof stress, 2024-T351 plate, 40 to 115 mm, LT
    value: 270
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 40 to 115 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 40-115 mm, LT, 0.2% Proof Stress min N/mm2
  - benchmark: ultimate_tensile_strength
    label: Minimum tensile strength, 2024-T351 plate, 40 to 115 mm, LT
    value: 410
    unit: MPa
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 40 to 115 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 40-115 mm, LT, Tensile Strength min N/mm2
  - benchmark: elongation
    label: Minimum elongation on 5.65 root-S, 2024-T351 plate, 40 to 115 mm, LT
    value: 8
    unit: '%'
    bound: lower
    scope: material
    conditions:
      temper: T351
      product_form: plate, 40 to 115 mm thickness
      direction: LT
      gauge: 5.65 times square root of original area
      basis: minimum limit in the BS 2L97 table printed on a stockist's technical data sheet
    method: Minimum limit printed in a stockist's copy of BS 2L97 (not the standard itself)
    status: ground
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Typical Mechanical Properties table, row BS 2 L97 2024-T351 Plate, 40-115 mm, LT, Elongation on 5.65v (min%)
corrosion:
  - environment: Seacoast atmosphere and salt water, short-transverse tension specimens of plate (NASA TM-82393, 1981)
    headline: NASA's 1981 seacoast test found 2024-T351 highly susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.
    effect: Round specimens of plate, stressed in the short transverse direction up to 100 percent of yield, were exposed at the Kennedy Space Center seacoast and in salt water and synthetic seawater. The 2024-T351 temper failed after very short exposure periods in all three media. Conclusion 4 says 2024-T351 and 7075-T651 were highly susceptible to SCC, while 2024-T851 showed moderate resistance, with failures at 75 percent of yield. The report says its results rest on limited lots of plate and may not represent other lots or forms.
    rating: severe
    conditions:
      temper: T351 plate, short-transverse specimens
      basis: 'one 1981 NASA test programme: about 12 months at the KSC seacoast, and shorter laboratory tests in salt water and synthetic seawater'
      note: the loss-of-load and pitting tables are scanned and were not used for numbers
    source: nasa-tm82393
    where: Results discussion and Conclusion 4 (NASA TM-82393)
  - environment: Chloride solution under applied tensile stress (1.0 M NaCl, controlled anodic potentials)
    headline: Tensile stress makes intergranular attack of AA2024-T3 faster in chloride solution.
    effect: The abstract says the two breakdown potentials of AA2024-T3 were lower for stressed samples than for unstressed ones, and the penetration rate was higher for stressed samples. Above the higher breakdown potential the primary attack was intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC), while pitting dominated between the two breakdown potentials. Stress had a larger effect on penetration rate at higher applied potentials.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      temper: T3 sheet (AA2024-T3)
      basis: electrochemical study using the foil penetration technique with modified ASTM G49 jigs; only the abstract was read
      note: the abstract gives no numbers; the rating is left unknown because the source gives none
    source: gamry-igc-2024
    where: Abstract of Effect of applied tensile stress on intergranular corrosion of AA2024-T3 (Gamry literature database, publication 263)
  - environment: Salt water and seacoast exposure, pitting (NASA TM-82393, 1981)
    headline: Pitting occurred in every test medium and was most severe, and earliest, in salt water.
    effect: The NASA report says pitting occurred in all three test media, was most severe and earliest in salt water, and can interfere with the interpretation of SCC test results after extended exposure. For that reason it recommends one year of exposure at the KSC seacoast for SCC tests of high-strength aluminium alloys.
    rating: unknown
    conditions:
      basis: pitting measured as loss of breaking load of unstressed specimens; the numbers are not used in this profile
      note: the source gives no rating; the description is qualitative
    source: nasa-tm82393
    where: Results discussion on pitting and Conclusion 1 (NASA TM-82393)
risks:
  hazards:
    - text: 'Copper, element-level: a 2010 Sigma-Aldrich copper SDS (product 349178, version 4.0, revision date 07/20/2010) gives H410, very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects, with signal word Warning and precautionary statement P273 (avoid release to the environment). This is one product''s SDS, not the alloy as supplied.'
      ghs:
        - H410
      source: sigma-cu-sds
      where: Section 2, Hazards identification, GHS label elements
    - text: 'Aluminium sheet, coil and foil (Alcoa SDS 1352, version 04, revised May 31, 2015): the product does not meet the criteria for GHS classification, but it may form combustible dust concentrations in air. This is the closest manufacturer SDS found; its alloy list does not include 2024.'
      ghs: []
      source: alcoa-al-sds
      where: 'Section 2, Hazard(s) identification (classification and authority-defined hazards: combustible dust)'
  failure_risks:
    - mode: Stress-corrosion cracking of 2024-T351 plate
      trigger: Sustained tensile stress in the short transverse direction, with seacoast or salt-water exposure
      consequence: In the 1981 NASA test the 2024-T351 specimens failed after very short exposure periods in all three media.
      severity: high
      source: nasa-tm82393
      where: Results discussion and Conclusion 4 (NASA TM-82393)
    - mode: Pitting that reduces section and interferes with SCC testing
      trigger: Salt-water exposure of unprotected aluminium
      consequence: Pitting lowered the breaking load of unstressed specimens, and NASA says it interferes with SCC test results after extended exposure.
      severity: moderate
      source: nasa-tm82393
      where: Results discussion on pitting (NASA TM-82393)
    - mode: Intergranular attack under tensile stress
      trigger: Tensile stress in 1.0 M NaCl at anodic potentials
      consequence: Penetration rate is higher for stressed samples; attack above the higher breakdown potential is intergranular stress-corrosion cracking.
      severity: moderate
      source: gamry-igc-2024
      where: Abstract (Gamry literature database, publication 263)
  handling:
    - text: Read the SDS for the exact product, alloy and form before cutting, grinding or welding. The Alcoa SDS says processing dust can form combustible concentrations.
      source: alcoa-al-sds
      where: Section 2, Hazard(s) identification
uses:
  - application: structures
    device: Aerospace structural parts and components of assemblies
    example: The Aubert and Duval datasheet lists aerospace structural parts and components of assemblies as an application of 2024 (alongside automotive use and plastics mould tools).
    source: aubert-2024
    where: Applications box
  - application: structures
    device: Structures and components in the aircraft and transportation industries
    example: The BS 2L97 datasheet says 2024 is commonly used on structures and components in the aircraft and transportation industries, because of its high strength and excellent fatigue resistance.
    source: bs-l97-2024
    where: Opening paragraph of the technical data sheet
  - application: mechanisms
    device: Gears and shafts, bolts, nuts, couplings, hydraulic valve bodies and pistons
    example: The printed ASM datasheet lists aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, bolts, nuts, couplings, hydraulic valve bodies, pistons and worm gears among the uses of 2024.
    source: asm-2024
    where: Material Notes, Uses
supply:
  - subject: Aluminium (primary smelter production)
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 60.8
        year: 2025
      - country: India
        share_percent: 5.7
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 5.3
        year: 2025
      - country: Canada
        share_percent: 4.5
        year: 2025
      - country: United Arab Emirates
        share_percent: 3.6
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (listed as Aluminum)
        listed: true
    recycling: 'USGS: in 2025 aluminum recovered from purchased scrap in the United States was about 3.6 million tons, of which about 56% came from new scrap and 44% from old scrap. Recovery from old scrap equalled about 28% of apparent consumption.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: composites can substitute for aluminum in aircraft fuselages and wings; composites, magnesium, steel and titanium in ground transportation; copper can replace aluminum in electrical and heat-exchange applications.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-aluminum
    where: 'World Smelter Production and Capacity table, 2025e column (world total 74,000 thousand t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes; Import Sources (2021 to 24): Canada 56 %'
  - subject: Copper (world mine production)
    producers:
      - country: Chile
        share_percent: 23
        year: 2025
      - country: Congo (Kinshasa)
        share_percent: 13.9
        year: 2025
      - country: Peru
        share_percent: 11.7
        year: 2025
      - country: China
        share_percent: 7.8
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 5.7
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (copper added in the 2025 list)
        listed: true
    recycling: 'USGS: old scrap converted to refined metal provided an estimated 160,000 tons of copper in 2025. Copper recovered from scrap contributed about 30% of the U.S. copper supply.'
    substitutes:
      - 'USGS: aluminum substitutes for copper in automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tube, electrical equipment and power cable; titanium and steel are used in heat exchangers.'
    source: usgs-mcs2026-copper
    where: World Mine and Refinery Production table, mine production 2025e (world total 23,000 thousand t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes
  - subject: Copper (world refinery production)
    producers:
      - country: China
        share_percent: 48.3
        year: 2025
      - country: Congo (Kinshasa)
        share_percent: 9.7
        year: 2025
      - country: Chile
        share_percent: 5.9
        year: 2025
      - country: Japan
        share_percent: 4.8
        year: 2025
      - country: Russia
        share_percent: 3.3
        year: 2025
    critical_lists:
      - list: USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (copper added in the 2025 list)
        listed: true
    recycling: See the copper mine entry above.
    substitutes: []
    source: usgs-mcs2026-copper
    where: World Mine and Refinery Production table, refinery production 2025e (world total 29,000 thousand t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom)
documents:
  - title: 'ASM Material Data Sheet: Aluminum 2024-T4; 2024-T351 (printed copy hosted by Quickparts, 12 May 2023)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://quickparts.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Aluminium-2024.pdf
    year: 2023
  - title: 'Aubert and Duval datasheet: Aluminium alloy 2024, Al Cu4Mg1 (EN AW-2024)'
    type: datasheet
    url: https://www.aubertduval.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024_GB.pdf
    year: 2024
  - title: BS 2L97 2024-T351 Plate technical data sheet (AircraftMaterials UK stockist page)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://aircraftmaterials.com/data/aluminium/l97.html
  - title: 'NASA TM-82393: Seacoast Stress Corrosion Cracking of Aluminum Alloys (Humphries and Nelson, Marshall Space Flight Center)'
    type: report
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19810009639/downloads/19810009639.pdf
    year: 1981
  - title: 'Gamry literature database: Effect of applied tensile stress on intergranular corrosion of AA2024-T3'
    type: paper
    url: https://gamry.com/resources-2/literature-database/publication/263
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Aluminum'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Copper'
    type: report
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-copper.pdf
    year: 2026
  - title: 'USGS: About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals (final list)'
    type: report
    url: https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals
    year: 2025
  - title: Sigma-Aldrich copper safety data sheet, product 349178, version 4.0 (copy hosted by Harper College, revised 07/20/2010)
    type: sds
    url: https://dept.harpercollege.edu/chemistry/msds1/Copper%20metal%20foil.pdf
    year: 2010
  - title: 'Alcoa SDS 1352: Aluminium sheet, coil and foil, bare and coated, version 04 (copy hosted by Purdue, revised May 31, 2015)'
    type: sds
    url: https://www.physics.purdue.edu/primelab/safety/MSDS/SDS/aluminum%20foil%20%20-%20Alcoa.pdf
    year: 2015
  - title: Kaiser Aluminum Rod & Bar Alloy 2024 technical data sheet (KA-RBH-2024-8.10)
    type: datasheet
    url: https://online.kaiseraluminum.com/depot/PublicProductInformation/Document/1022/Kaiser_Aluminum_2024_Rod_and_Bar.pdf
  - title: 'Total Materia: DIN 3.1355 aluminium alloy page (cross-reference list)'
    type: database
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/3000361
  - title: 'Total Materia: JIS A 2024PC aluminium alloy page (cross-reference list)'
    type: database
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/3012691
  - title: 'EverySpec: QQ-A-250/4E Federal Specification, Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet (1971, cancelled)'
    type: standard
    url: https://everyspec.com/FED_SPECS/Q/QQ-A-250_4E_49813/
    year: 1971
  - title: 'SAE AMS4037R: Aluminum Alloy, Sheet and Plate 4.4Cu - 1.5Mg - 0.60Mn (2024; -T3 Flat Sheet, -T351 Plate)'
    type: standard
    url: https://saemobilus.sae.org/content/AMS4037R
    year: 2020
  - title: 'SAE AMSQQA250/4A: Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet'
    type: standard
    url: https://saemobilus.sae.org/standards/amsqqa2504a-aluminum-alloy-2024-plate-sheet
    year: 2010
gaps:
  - No readable source gave strength values for the T3 sheet temper or the O (annealed) temper. A partssource listing gave 11,000 psi tensile and 19,000 psi yield for 2024-T3 sheet; these look wrong against general practice and were not used.
  - Only typical values from the ASM copy (T4 record, marked NOT FOR DESIGN) and minimum limits from one stockist's copy of BS 2L97 for T351 plate were found. No design allowable from MMPDS, MIL-HDBK-5 or AMS 4037 was opened.
  - The ASM copy's T4 table is not split by temper, although its title names T351. The values are kept under T4 with that caveat; no value is shown as T351 unless the BS 2L97 limits.
  - Fracture toughness is recorded as fracture_toughness, a name not in the property canon.
  - No cryogenic strength, elongation or toughness values at 77 K or 4 K were found in an open, readable source. The NIST cryogenic site was not reachable in a searchable form for 2024.
  - No vacuum outgassing (TML and CVCM), atomic-oxygen, thermal-vacuum or flight result for 2024 was found. The NASA outgassing database was not searchable for an alloy-specific entry in this run.
  - Galvanic corrosion data (coupling with more noble metals) for 2024 was not found in a readable source.
  - 'Pitting and SCC mechanism work on AA2024-T3 that names S-phase (Al2CuMg) particles was not read: the MDPI 2021 paper returned HTTP 403 to both the fetch tool and curl, and the NSF public-access copy of the 2023 Corrosion Science paper could not be downloaded in this run. The Hashimoto 2016 dealloying paper was seen only in a reference list.'
  - No protective coating or cladding data (Alclad, anodising, paint) for 2024 was read in this run.
  - PubChem GHS data for aluminium and copper could not be read (the site served a bot-check page). The hazards use the Alcoa sheet SDS, which covers a product list that does not include 2024, and a 2010 copper SDS; later copper SDSs in the search results list H228, H400 and H410, and copper foil SDSs from other suppliers list no classification, so the copper hazard is supplier-specific.
  - No 2024-specific SDS was opened. Dust and fume hazards from machining or welding 2024 were not found in a readable source.
  - Supply of magnesium, manganese and copper as alloying elements beyond the USGS copper summary was not looked up. The EU critical raw materials list was not read in this run.
  - The USGS 2025 critical minerals page returned HTTP 403 to curl; its list was read through a web fetch, so the verify script cannot read it.
  - The ASM copy prints aluminium as 90.7 to 94.7 wt%, which does not match the stated remainder method; the figure is kept as printed.
  - 'Designations: a plain JIS A2024 was not printed in any source read in this run. Total Materia lists A 2024T under JIS only as an implicit equivalent, so it was not added.'
  - 'Designations: no Aalco 2024 datasheet was found. Aalco''s EN standards page lists 2024 only as a bare number in Alloy Group II, and its specifications page does not name 2024.'
  - 'Designations: Constellium''s aerospace plates page does not name 2024, and no Constellium 2024 datasheet was found.'
  - 'Designations: the titles of the AMS specs that Kaiser lists for 2024 rod and bar (AMS-QQ-A-225/6, AMS-QQ-A-200/3, AMS 4120, AMS 4339, AMS 4152, AMS 4164, AMS 4165) and of ASME SB211 were not read. The DIN 3.1355 and Alclad 2024 names come from Total Materia pages, not from the DIN or SAE texts.'
  - 'Designations: the SAE page for AMSQQA250/4A (reaffirmed 2010, later revision B listed) and the EverySpec copy of QQ-A-250/4E (cancelled) disagree on status. Check the current status with SAE or the issuing body before relying on either.'
  - 'Designations: the SAE AMS 4041H page (Alclad 2024) and the Continental Steel 2024-T351 page could not be read by curl (503 error and Cloudflare block). The Alclad 2024 name is taken from the Total Materia list only.'
  - 'Designations: Total Materia also lists GOST 1160, UNE L-3140 and UNE Al-4Cu1Mg as implicit equivalents for this alloy. They were not added because they could not be checked against those standards.'
  - 'Designations: temper names (2024-T4, 2024-T351, 2024-T3) are not added as designations, because they name a temper rather than another name for the alloy. The SAE AMS 4037R title gives -T3 Flat Sheet, and no T3 property value is in this profile.'
  - 'Designations: KS A2024PC and ASME SB-221 2024 appear only on the Total Materia list. The page does not define the KS suffix, and it labels the SB-221 link Implicit, so neither was added.'
sources:
  asm-2024:
    title: 'ASM Material Data Sheet: Aluminum 2024-T4; 2024-T351 (printed copy, 12 May 2023; MatWeb record key ma2024t4)'
    id: ASM/MatWeb ma2024t4; composition and data from the Aluminum Association, marked not for design
    url: https://quickparts.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Aluminium-2024.pdf
    year: 2023
    kind: datasheet
    license: MatWeb terms of use (cited, not reproduced)
  aubert-2024:
    title: 'Aubert and Duval datasheet: Aluminium alloy 2024 (Al Cu4Mg1, EN AW-2024, UNS A92024)'
    id: Aubert and Duval 2024 datasheet, December 2024 upload
    url: https://www.aubertduval.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024_GB.pdf
    year: 2024
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  bs-l97-2024:
    title: BS 2L97 2024-T351 Plate technical data sheet, AircraftMaterials UK stockist page
    id: BS 2 L97 (British aerospace specification for 2024 plate); minimum limits as printed by the stockist
    url: https://aircraftmaterials.com/data/aluminium/l97.html
    kind: datasheet
    license: stockist web page (cited, not reproduced)
  nasa-tm82393:
    title: 'NASA TM-82393: Seacoast Stress Corrosion Cracking of Aluminum Alloys (T. S. Humphries and E. E. Nelson, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center)'
    id: NTRS 19810009639; NASA TM-82393; 1981
    url: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19810009639/downloads/19810009639.pdf
    year: 1981
    kind: report
    license: public domain (NASA)
  gamry-igc-2024:
    title: Effect of applied tensile stress on intergranular corrosion of AA2024-T3 (abstract, Gamry literature database, publication 263)
    id: Gamry literature database entry 263; abstract only, authors and journal not shown on the page
    url: https://gamry.com/resources-2/literature-database/publication/263
    kind: web
    license: publisher abstract (cited, not reproduced)
  usgs-mcs2026-aluminum:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Aluminum
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-mcs2026-copper:
    title: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Copper
    id: USGS MCS 2026, February 2026
    url: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-copper.pdf
    year: 2026
    kind: report
    license: public domain (USGS)
  usgs-crit2025:
    title: About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals (USGS, final list)
    id: Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals, November 2025
    url: https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals
    year: 2025
    kind: web
    license: public domain (USGS)
  sigma-cu-sds:
    title: Sigma-Aldrich copper safety data sheet, product 349178, version 4.0 (Harper College copy)
    id: Sigma-Aldrich product 349178; revision date 07/20/2010; print date 08/31/2011
    url: https://dept.harpercollege.edu/chemistry/msds1/Copper%20metal%20foil.pdf
    year: 2010
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier SDS (cited, not reproduced)
  alcoa-al-sds:
    title: 'Alcoa SDS 1352: Aluminium sheet, coil and foil, bare and coated (copy hosted by Purdue)'
    id: Alcoa SDS number 1352, version 04, revision date May 31, 2015
    url: https://www.physics.purdue.edu/primelab/safety/MSDS/SDS/aluminum%20foil%20%20-%20Alcoa.pdf
    year: 2015
    kind: datasheet
    license: supplier SDS (cited, not reproduced)
  wiki-aluminium-alloy:
    title: 'Aluminium alloy (Wikipedia): wrought alloy composition table and 2000-series history'
    id: Wikipedia, Aluminium alloy; used for composition cross-check and history only
    url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_alloy
    kind: web
    license: CC-BY-SA-4.0 (cited, not reproduced)
  kaiser-rod-bar-2024:
    title: Kaiser Aluminum Rod & Bar Alloy 2024 technical data sheet (applicable specifications table)
    id: Kaiser document code KA-RBH-2024-8.10
    url: https://online.kaiseraluminum.com/depot/PublicProductInformation/Document/1022/Kaiser_Aluminum_2024_Rod_and_Bar.pdf
    kind: datasheet
    license: manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)
  totalmateria-din-3-1355:
    title: 'Total Materia: DIN 3.1355 aluminium alloy page (cross-reference list)'
    id: Total Materia material page 3000361
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/3000361
    kind: database
    license: database page (cited, not reproduced)
  totalmateria-jis-a2024pc:
    title: 'Total Materia: JIS A 2024PC aluminium alloy page (cross-reference list)'
    id: Total Materia material page 3012691; the page cites JIS H 4000:2022
    url: https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/3012691
    kind: database
    license: database page (cited, not reproduced)
  everyspec-qq-a-250-4e:
    title: 'EverySpec: QQ-A-250/4E Federal Specification, Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet (18 January 1971, status Cancelled)'
    id: EverySpec QQ-A-250_4E
    url: https://everyspec.com/FED_SPECS/Q/QQ-A-250_4E_49813/
    year: 1971
    kind: standard
    license: standards catalogue page (cited, not reproduced)
  sae-ams4037r:
    title: 'SAE AMS4037R: Aluminum Alloy, Sheet and Plate 4.4Cu - 1.5Mg - 0.60Mn (2024; -T3 Flat Sheet, -T351 Plate), Solution Heat Treated'
    id: SAE AMS4037R, revised August 2020
    url: https://saemobilus.sae.org/content/AMS4037R
    year: 2020
    kind: standard
    license: SAE catalogue page (cited, not reproduced)
  sae-amsqqa250-4a:
    title: 'SAE AMSQQA250/4A: Aluminum Alloy 2024, Plate and Sheet (material specification page)'
    id: SAE AMSQQA250/4A, reaffirmed May 2010
    url: https://saemobilus.sae.org/standards/amsqqa2504a-aluminum-alloy-2024-plate-sheet
    year: 2010
    kind: standard
    license: SAE catalogue page (cited, not reproduced)
license: CC-BY-4.0
updated: '2026-10-24'
review:
  status: draft
  method: assistant
  checked_values: 24
  unreachable: 4
  caveats: 4
  note: 'First write on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in this run. Values were re-read from the printed ASM copy (Quickparts PDF), the Aubert and Duval PDF, the BS 2L97 stockist page, the USGS MCS 2026 aluminum and copper PDFs, NASA TM-82393, the Gamry abstract, the Harper-hosted Sigma-Aldrich copper SDS and the Purdue-hosted Alcoa SDS. The USGS critical minerals page was read by web fetch only. Unreachable: PubChem (bot-check page), MDPI 2021 AA2024-T3 paper (HTTP 403), NSF public-access paper (not downloadable), asm.matweb.com (not used). Caveats: the ASM values are typical and marked not for design; the BS 2L97 values are minimum limits from a stockist copy; the 1981 NASA SCC result rests on limited plate lots; the T4 record is not split by temper.'
story:
  recipe:
    line: 'Wrought Al-Cu-Mg alloy. Composition limits in wt% from the printed ASM datasheet: copper 3.8 to 4.9, magnesium 1.2 to 1.8, manganese 0.3 to 0.9, with silicon, iron, chromium, zinc and titanium at their maxima and aluminium the balance. The Aubert and Duval datasheet gives a nominal 4.4 Cu, 1.5 Mg and 0.6 Mn. Its heat treatment is solution treatment at 493 °C, water quench, then ageing to the required properties.'
    parts:
      - name: Aluminium
        symbol: Al
        share_note: balance (the ASM sheet prints 90.7 to 94.7 wt% and says the aluminium content is calculated as remainder)
        role: The matrix of the alloy.
      - name: Copper
        symbol: Cu
        share_percent: 3.8
        share_high: 4.9
        role: Main alloying element, nominal 4.4 wt% (Aubert and Duval). Wikipedia says 2000-series alloys alloyed with copper can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel.
      - name: Magnesium
        symbol: Mg
        share_percent: 1.2
        share_high: 1.8
        role: Alloying addition, nominal 1.5 wt% (Aubert and Duval).
      - name: Manganese
        symbol: Mn
        share_percent: 0.3
        share_high: 0.9
        role: Alloying addition, nominal 0.6 wt% (Aubert and Duval).
      - name: Silicon
        symbol: Si
        share_note: max 0.5 wt%
        role: Impurity limit set on the datasheet.
      - name: Iron
        symbol: Fe
        share_note: max 0.5 wt%
        role: Impurity limit set on the datasheet.
  risk_groups:
    - title: For people
      lead: No 2024-specific safety data sheet was read. The SDSs cited are for a copper product and for an Alcoa aluminium sheet product, not for 2024 as supplied.
      gap: Hazard classification for 2024 as supplied, and for dust or fumes from machining or welding, was not found in a source opened in this run.
      points:
        - label: Copper
          line: A 2010 copper SDS gives H410, very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects, with precautionary statement P273 (avoid release to the environment).
        - label: Dust
          line: The Alcoa SDS says the sheet and foil product may form combustible dust concentrations in air.
    - title: If it fails
      lead: Failure routes from a 1981 NASA test and an electrochemical study. They are test results, not field incident data.
      points:
        - label: Stress-corrosion cracking
          line: 2024-T351 plate, stressed in the short transverse direction, failed after very short exposure in seacoast and salt-water tests. NASA rated the temper highly susceptible.
        - label: Pitting
          line: Pitting appeared in every test medium and was most severe and earliest in salt water. It can interfere with SCC test results.
        - label: Intergranular attack under stress
          line: In 1.0 M NaCl, tensile stress made attack on AA2024-T3 faster. Above the higher breakdown potential the attack was intergranular stress-corrosion cracking.
    - title: Handling and storage
      points:
        - label: Read the SDS
          line: Check the SDS for the exact product, alloy and form before cutting, grinding or welding.
        - label: Protection
          line: The sources opened give no protection data for 2024 (paint, cladding or anodising), so this profile does not recommend one.
  why: Aluminium alloy 2024 is a wrought, heat-treatable aluminium alloy built on copper, with smaller amounts of magnesium and manganese. Wrought means it is worked into sheet, plate, bar or forgings by rolling, extruding or forging rather than cast to shape. The printed ASM and Aubert and Duval datasheets give a high-strength T4 record with a typical yield strength of 324 MPa and a density of 2.78 g/cc, and the BS 2L97 limits give minimum strengths for 2024-T351 plate. Its strength is set by heat treatment (solution treatment, quench and ageing). A temper is a code for that heat treatment and working, so this profile keeps the T4, forged and T351 plate values apart. The 1981 NASA seacoast test shows that the T351 temper is very susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in short transverse specimens.
  uses:
    - where: Aerospace structural parts
      line: The Aubert and Duval datasheet lists aerospace structural parts and components of assemblies as an application of 2024. The BS 2L97 datasheet says the alloy is commonly used on structures and components in the aircraft and transportation industries, because of its high strength and excellent fatigue resistance.
    - where: Fittings, gears, shafts and fasteners
      line: The printed ASM datasheet lists aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, bolts, nuts, couplings, hydraulic valve bodies, pistons and worm gears among the uses of 2024.
  can_do:
    - label: Strength, T4 record
      value: 324 MPa yield
      line: In the T4 record of the ASM datasheet the typical tensile yield strength is 324 MPa and the typical ultimate tensile strength is 469 MPa, with 19 % elongation for a 1/2 inch specimen. These are typical values marked not for design.
    - label: Strength, T351 plate minimums
      value: 280 MPa minimum
      line: For 2024-T351 plate of 6 to 25 mm in the LT direction, the BS 2L97 limits give a minimum 0.2 % proof stress of 280 MPa, a minimum tensile strength of 430 MPa and a minimum elongation of 10 %. For 40 to 115 mm the minimums are 270 MPa and 410 MPa, with 8 %.
    - label: Weight and stiffness
      value: 2.78 g/cc
      line: Density is 2.78 g/cc and the modulus of elasticity, a measure of stiffness, is 73.1 GPa (ASM typical). The fatigue strength is 138 MPa after 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress in an RR Moore test.
    - label: Fracture toughness
      value: 32 MPa-m½
      line: The ASM datasheet gives a plane-strain fracture toughness of 32 MPa-m½ in the T-L direction, and 26 MPa-m½ in the S-L direction.
    - label: Heat conduction
      value: 121 W/m-K
      line: Thermal conductivity is 121 W/m-K at 77 °F (ASM typical) and 120 W/(m·K) at 20 °C for the T4 condition (Aubert and Duval).
    - label: Thermal expansion
      value: 23.2 ppm/K
      line: The mean linear expansion is 23.2 µm/m-°C between 68 and 212 °F (ASM typical), and 22.9 ppm/K between 20 and 100 °C (Aubert and Duval).
  compare: The record supports only a limited comparison. The USGS says composites can substitute for aluminium in aircraft fuselages and wings, and composites, magnesium, steel and titanium can substitute in ground transportation. It says copper can replace aluminium in electrical and heat-exchange uses. This profile holds no strength-per-mass numbers for those alternatives, so it does not rank them.
  compare_rows:
    - label: Density
      benchmark: density
    - label: Yield strength
      benchmark: yield_strength
    - label: Thermal expansion
      benchmark: cte
  handling:
    - Read the SDS for the exact product, alloy and form before cutting, grinding or welding.
    - Avoid sustained tensile stress in chloride or seacoast exposure, since the 2024-T351 temper cracked quickly in the 1981 NASA test.
    - Allow for pitting in salt water, which is most severe and earliest there.
  good_for:
    - High-strength structural parts. The ASM typical T4 yield strength is 324 MPa at 2.78 g/cc.
    - Fatigue-loaded parts. The ASM typical fatigue strength is 138 MPa at 500,000,000 cycles, completely reversed (RR Moore).
    - Aircraft fittings and structures, the uses named in the datasheets.
  watch_out:
    - Stress-corrosion cracking of 2024-T351 under sustained short transverse stress in seacoast or salt-water exposure (NASA 1981).
    - Pitting in salt water, most severe and earliest there (NASA 1981).
    - The ASM strengths are typical values marked NOT FOR DESIGN. The BS 2L97 values are minimum limits from one stockist's copy, not design allowables.
    - No T3 sheet, O temper, cryogenic, outgassing or flight values were found in a readable source.
  verdict: 2024 is a high-strength Al-Cu-Mg alloy with a record of use in aircraft structures and fittings in the sources cited. The sourced numbers are typical T4 values, forged T4 limits and BS 2L97 minimums for T351 plate, kept apart by temper and product form. Its clearest weakness in this record is stress-corrosion cracking of the T351 temper in seacoast and salt-water conditions, shown by the 1981 NASA test. T3 sheet, O temper and design-grade values remain open.