{
  "id": "nasa-ingenuity-helicopter",
  "title": "Ingenuity Mars Helicopter",
  "maker": "NASA / JPL",
  "maker_type": "Space agency",
  "kind": "mission",
  "category": "rovers",
  "page": "https://spacemushroom.com/space-products/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter/",
  "website": "https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/ingenuity-mars-helicopter/",
  "summary": "The first helicopter to fly on another planet, a 1.8 kg coaxial rotorcraft with carbon-fibre blades and legs, a Li-ion battery and a solar panel, carried to Mars on the Perseverance rover.",
  "application": "Ingenuity was a technology demonstration that proved powered, controlled flight in the thin Martian air. It rode on the belly of Perseverance and flew short scouting flights from the surface. Its low mass drove its materials: carbon-fibre composite rotors and legs, lithium-ion cells and a small solar panel.",
  "story": {
    "headline": "Ingenuity was the first helicopter to fly on another planet, a 1.8 kg craft carried to Mars by Perseverance.",
    "intro": [
      "Ingenuity was a NASA technology demonstration that proved powered, controlled flight in the thin air of Mars. Built by NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, it rode on the belly of the Perseverance rover and flew short scouting flights from the surface. It made 72 flights between 19 April 2021 and 18 January 2024.",
      "Its low mass of 1.8 kg drove the choice of materials. The two 1.2 m rotors, one above the other, spin at up to 2,400 revolutions per minute and have blades with a foam core wrapped in carbon fibre. The legs are carbon fibre too, and the power comes from lithium-ion cells and a small solar panel."
    ],
    "built": [
      {
        "title": "Rotors",
        "text": "Each rotor is 1.2 m long, and its blades have a foam core wrapped in carbon fibre. In the design, most of the rotor's primary structure is carbon fibre composite, and the motor windings use rectangular copper wire.",
        "parts": [
          "Rotor blades (upper and lower)",
          "Blade foam core",
          "Rotor primary structure",
          "Rotor motor windings"
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Legs and mast",
        "text": "The landing gear is four legs made of tapered carbon fibre and epoxy tubes, which absorb the loads of landing. A central mast, a hollow tube, runs from the top of the helicopter to the bottom.",
        "parts": [
          "Legs (4)",
          "Central mast"
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Power and warmth",
        "text": "The battery is six lithium-ion cells, and a solar panel recharges it between flights. The panel's cells are inverted metamorphic cells from SolAero Technologies. At night, Kapton film heaters attached to the cells keep the battery warm.",
        "parts": [
          "Battery cells (6)",
          "Solar panel cells",
          "Battery heaters"
        ]
      }
    ],
    "materials": [
      {
        "name": "Carbon fibre",
        "mid": "carbon-fibre",
        "where": "The rotor blades, wrapped around a foam core, the rotor's primary structure and the landing legs."
      },
      {
        "name": "Copper",
        "mid": "copper",
        "where": "The rectangular wire in the motor windings, and the wiring that comes down through the mast."
      },
      {
        "name": "Lithium-ion cells",
        "mid": "lithium-ion-cell",
        "where": "The six cells of the battery."
      },
      {
        "name": "Inverted metamorphic solar cells",
        "mid": "solaero-imm4j-solar-cell",
        "where": "The cells of the solar panel, made by SolAero Technologies."
      },
      {
        "name": "Kapton film",
        "mid": "kapton-film-grade-unstated",
        "where": "The film heaters attached to the battery cells. The grade is not stated."
      }
    ],
    "connections": "Ingenuity travelled to Mars on the Perseverance rover and rode on its belly. NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory built it. SolAero Technologies made the solar cells, and the battery uses Sony cells. The outermost thermal coating on the fuselage comes from Sheldahl.",
    "unknown": "Most of what is known about its materials comes from the design stage, before the flight hardware was final, so the flown parts may differ. The foam in the blades, the mast tube, the motor magnets, the base under the solar cells and the exact grade of Kapton are not stated.",
    "facts": [
      {
        "label": "Mass",
        "value": "1.8 kg (4 lb)"
      },
      {
        "label": "Rotors",
        "value": "Two rotors, 1.2 m long, up to 2,400 rpm"
      },
      {
        "label": "First flight",
        "value": "19 April 2021"
      },
      {
        "label": "Last flight",
        "value": "18 January 2024"
      },
      {
        "label": "Flights",
        "value": "72"
      }
    ]
  },
  "specifications": [
    {
      "label": "Mass",
      "value": "1.8 kg (4 lb)",
      "source_url": "https://www.mdscc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Mars2020_Helicopter_Fact_Sheet.pdf",
      "quote": "Weighs 4 pounds (1.8 kg)"
    },
    {
      "label": "Rotors",
      "value": "Two rotors, 1.2 m long, up to 2,400 rpm",
      "source_url": "https://www.mdscc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Mars2020_Helicopter_Fact_Sheet.pdf",
      "quote": "Two 4-foot-long (1.2- meter-long) rotor system that spins up to 2,400 revolutions per minute"
    },
    {
      "label": "First flight",
      "value": "19 April 2021",
      "source_url": "https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/ingenuity-mars-helicopter/",
      "quote": "initial flight on April 19, 2021"
    },
    {
      "label": "Last flight",
      "value": "18 January 2024",
      "source_url": "https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/ingenuity-mars-helicopter/",
      "quote": "It flew for the last time on Jan. 18, 2024."
    },
    {
      "label": "Flights",
      "value": "72",
      "source_url": "https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/ingenuity-mars-helicopter/",
      "quote": "completed 72 historic flights"
    },
    {
      "label": "Battery mass (6 cells)",
      "value": "273 g (design paper)",
      "source_url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190026832",
      "quote": "the total mass of the 6 cells is 273 g",
      "quote_check": "not matched on the source page"
    },
    {
      "label": "Solar panel",
      "value": "680 cm2 substrate, 544 cm2 active cell area (design paper)",
      "source_url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190026832",
      "quote": "occupy a rectangular area with 680 cm2 of substrate (544 cm2 active cell area)",
      "quote_check": "not matched on the source page"
    }
  ],
  "features": [
    {
      "text": "Solar panel recharges Li-ion batteries between flights",
      "source_url": "https://www.mdscc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Mars2020_Helicopter_Fact_Sheet.pdf",
      "quote": "Solar-powered and recharges on its own"
    },
    {
      "text": "Landing gear: four tapered carbon-fibre/epoxy legs absorb landing loads",
      "source_url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190026832",
      "quote": "The landing system consists of 4 legs made of tapered carbon fiber/epoxy tubes.",
      "quote_check": "not matched on the source page"
    },
    {
      "text": "Battery heated at night by Kapton film heaters",
      "source_url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190026832",
      "quote": "powers Kapton film heaters attached to the battery cells",
      "quote_check": "not matched on the source page"
    }
  ],
  "parts": [
    {
      "assembly": "Rotor system",
      "parts": [
        {
          "part": "Rotor blades (upper and lower)",
          "material": "carbon-fibre composite skin over foam core",
          "form": "foam core wrapped in carbon fibre, with carbon fibre spar caps",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "The SRH and Ingenuity blades both consist of a foam core wrapped in carbon fiber.",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/1685_Wright_Final_Revised_021424.pdf",
          "profile": "carbon-fibre",
          "mid": "carbon-fibre"
        },
        {
          "part": "Blade foam core",
          "material": null,
          "form": "foam core",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "consist of a foam core wrapped in carbon fiber",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/1685_Wright_Final_Revised_021424.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": null
        },
        {
          "part": "Rotor primary structure",
          "material": "carbon-fibre composites",
          "form": "composite",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "fabricated from carbon fiber composites for most of the primary structure",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": "carbon-fibre",
          "mid": "carbon-fibre"
        },
        {
          "part": "Rotor motor windings",
          "material": "copper",
          "form": "rectangular wire",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "solenoid wound teeth using rectangular copper wire",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": "copper",
          "mid": "copper"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "assembly": "Landing gear",
      "parts": [
        {
          "part": "Legs (4)",
          "material": "carbon-fibre/epoxy",
          "form": "tapered tube",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "4 legs made of tapered carbon fiber/epoxy tubes",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": "carbon-fibre",
          "mid": "carbon-fibre"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "assembly": "Power and thermal",
      "parts": [
        {
          "part": "Battery cells (6)",
          "material": "lithium-ion (Sony VTC4 cells as quoted)",
          "form": "18650 cells, 2 Ah each",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "6 Sony SE US1865o VTC4 Li-ion cells with a nameplate capacity of 2 Ah",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": "lithium-ion-cell"
        },
        {
          "part": "Solar panel cells",
          "material": "inverted metamorphic multijunction (IMM4J) cells, SolAero",
          "form": "cells on substrate",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "made from Inverted Metamorphic (IMM4J) cells from SolAero Technologies",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": "solaero-imm4j-solar-cell"
        },
        {
          "part": "Battery heaters",
          "material": "Kapton film (grade not stated)",
          "form": "film heater",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "powers Kapton film heaters attached to the battery cells",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": "kapton-film-grade-unstated"
        },
        {
          "part": "Fuselage outer thermal coating",
          "material": "Sheldahl coating (composition not stated)",
          "form": null,
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "The outermost fuselage thermal coating is from Sheldahl",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": null
        },
        {
          "part": "Wiring through mast to ECM",
          "material": "copper",
          "form": "wire",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "through the copper wiring that penetrate the ECM from the mast",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": "copper",
          "mid": "copper"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "assembly": "Structure",
      "parts": [
        {
          "part": "Central mast",
          "material": null,
          "form": "hollow tube",
          "finish": null,
          "standard": null,
          "hardware_ref": null,
          "quote": "a hollow structural tube that runs from the top of the helicopter to the bottom",
          "source_url": "https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Balaram_AIAA2018_0023.pdf",
          "profile": null,
          "mid": null
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "materials": [
    {
      "id": "carbon-fibre",
      "name": "carbon-fibre/epoxy",
      "material_page": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/carbon-fibre/"
    },
    {
      "id": "copper",
      "name": "copper",
      "material_page": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/copper/"
    },
    {
      "id": "lithium-ion-cell",
      "name": "lithium-ion (Sony VTC4 cells as quoted)",
      "material_page": null
    },
    {
      "id": "solaero-imm4j-solar-cell",
      "name": "inverted metamorphic multijunction (IMM4J) cells, SolAero",
      "material_page": null
    },
    {
      "id": "kapton-film-grade-unstated",
      "name": "Kapton film (grade not stated)",
      "material_page": null
    }
  ],
  "standards": [],
  "relations": [],
  "not_published": "Mast, fuselage frame, blade foam, motor magnets, avionics boards, solar panel substrate and bonding materials are not stated.",
  "depth": "partial",
  "photos": [
    {
      "file": "products/context/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter-1.jpg",
      "alt": "Ingenuity Mars Helicopter flight model photographed in a studio on a blue and white background, rotors, solar panel and four",
      "long": "Ingenuity Mars Helicopter flight model photographed in a studio on a blue and white background, rotors, solar panel and four legs visible",
      "kind": "product",
      "credit": "NASA/JPL-Caltech (via Wikimedia Commons / NASA Photojournal)",
      "license": "Public domain",
      "page_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PIA23882-MarsHelicopterIngenuity-20200429.jpg"
    },
    {
      "file": "products/context/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter-2.jpg",
      "alt": "Ingenuity helicopter on the Martian surface seen by the Perseverance Mastcam-Z camera, solar panel above rotor blades",
      "long": "Ingenuity helicopter on the Martian surface seen by the Perseverance Mastcam-Z camera, solar panel above rotor blades",
      "kind": "product",
      "credit": "NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS (public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)",
      "license": "Public domain",
      "page_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mastcam-Z_Gives_Ingenuity_a_Close-up.jpg"
    },
    {
      "file": "products/context/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter-3.jpg",
      "alt": "Ingenuity helicopter being inspected by technicians in cleanroom suits at Kennedy Space Center before launch",
      "long": "Ingenuity helicopter being inspected by technicians in cleanroom suits at Kennedy Space Center before launch",
      "kind": "product",
      "credit": "Cory Huston / NASA (public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)",
      "license": "Public domain",
      "page_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ingenuity_is_tested_at_the_Kennedy_Space_Center.jpg"
    }
  ],
  "context": {
    "size": [],
    "mass": [],
    "orbit": [
      "Deep space"
    ]
  },
  "licence": "Product data CC BY 4.0, cite Space Mushroom. Photos keep their own licences, given per photo.",
  "mcp": "https://spacemushroom.com/mcp"
}