{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "vanadium",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "refractory-metals",
  "name": "Vanadium",
  "abbreviation": "V",
  "role": "refractory metal used mainly as an alloying element in steel and aerospace titanium alloys, and as the electrolyte element of vanadium redox flow batteries",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "refractory-metals",
  "summary": "Vanadium (V, atomic number 23) is a soft, very ductile, body-centred cubic metal with a density of 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C and a melting point of 1910 °C (Stanford Advanced Materials SDS; Goodfellow). Most of it is used as an alloying element: the USGS says metallurgical use accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025, and no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys. Its main hazard is fire: fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric, and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C in air (Goodfellow).\n",
  "best_for": "Alloying steel and aerospace titanium: no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys (USGS 2026)",
  "weakest_at": "Fire and oxidation: fine powder is pyrophoric and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C in air, and the oxide V2O5 is toxic (Goodfellow)",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "V (element, atomic number 23)",
    "cas": "7440-62-2",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "sds-stanford-v",
    "where": "Section 1 Product Name and CAS"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "structures",
      "batteries"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, vanadium at 20 °C",
      "value": 6.11,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "form": "element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS, density row",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "sds-stanford-v",
      "where": "Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Density at 20 °C (68 °F)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials, date revised 02/02/2023",
        "id": "CAS 7440-62-2, EC 231-171-1",
        "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf",
        "year": 2023,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, vanadium at 200 °C",
      "value": 6.1,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "200 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "g/cc"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Density (g/cc at 200ºC)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point, vanadium",
      "value": 1910,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "sds-stanford-v",
      "where": "Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Melting point/range 1910 °C (3470 °F)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials, date revised 02/02/2023",
        "id": "CAS 7440-62-2, EC 231-171-1",
        "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf",
        "year": 2023,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point, commercial vanadium",
      "value": 1900,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "commercial electron-beam-melted ingot, value as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The Goodfellow page prints 1,910 °C and the SDS prints 1910 °C; the ATI value is rounded to 1900 °C.",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Melting Point 1900ºC",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "boiling_point",
      "label": "Boiling point, vanadium",
      "value": 3407,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "element, as the SDS product (vanadium powder, CAS 7440-62-2)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in Section 9 of the supplier SDS",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "sds-stanford-v",
      "where": "Section 9 Physical and chemical properties, row Boiling point/range 3407 °C (6165 °F)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials, date revised 02/02/2023",
        "id": "CAS 7440-62-2, EC 231-171-1",
        "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf",
        "year": 2023,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "boiling_point",
      "label": "Boiling point, commercial vanadium",
      "value": 3400,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "commercial electron-beam-melted ingot, value as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Boiling Point 3400ºC",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, vanadium",
      "value": 30.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated in the row",
        "unit_in_source": "W/m·K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the Goodfellow vanadium material page, Thermal Conductivity row",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Thermal Conductivity row, value 30.7 W/m·K",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, Vanadium material page (general properties, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, surface oxide)",
        "id": "Goodfellow material page, metals, vanadium",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Young's modulus, vanadium",
      "value": 128,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated in the row"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the Goodfellow vanadium material page, Young's Modulus row",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Young's Modulus row, value 128 GPa",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, Vanadium material page (general properties, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, surface oxide)",
        "id": "Goodfellow material page, metals, vanadium",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, vanadium",
      "value": 8.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "23 °C to 100 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "8.3 x 10-6 per ºC"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion per ºC, 23º to 100ºC",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "poissons_ratio",
      "label": "Poisson's ratio, vanadium",
      "value": 0.36,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "typical value as printed in the datasheet, no temperature stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Mechanical Properties (typical)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties (typical) section, row Poisson's Ratio 0.36",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, annealed vanadium sheet (typical)",
      "value": 35,
      "value_high": 60,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "annealed sheet",
        "gauge": "2 inch gauge length",
        "basis": "typical range as printed"
      },
      "method": "Typical range printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Mechanical Properties (typical)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties (typical) section, row Elongation, annealed sheet, % in 2 inches 35-60",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "recrystallization_temperature",
      "label": "Recrystallization temperature, commercial vanadium",
      "value": 800,
      "value_high": 1010,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "range as printed in the datasheet"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Custom benchmark name, not in the property canon.",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Recrystallization Temperature ºC 800º to 1010ºC",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "superconducting_transition_temperature",
      "label": "Superconducting transition temperature, vanadium",
      "value": -268.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "superconducting transition, Tc as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the ATI commercial vanadium datasheet, Physical Properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Custom benchmark name, not in the property canon.",
      "source": "ati-v-tds",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Superconductivity (Tc) -268.7ºC",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
        "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
        "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
        "year": 2014,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Air at room temperature, bulk metal",
      "headline": "Bulk vanadium oxidises slowly in air at room temperature.",
      "effect": "The Goodfellow corrosion row says bulk V oxidizes slowly in air at room temperature but ignites above about 600 °C.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "room temperature, air; no exposure duration printed"
      },
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Notes"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Air above about 600 °C, bulk metal",
      "headline": "Bulk vanadium ignites above about 600 °C.",
      "effect": "The Goodfellow corrosion row gives the ignition of bulk V as above about 600 °C in air. The surface oxide is V2O5, which is the thermodynamically stable oxide in air (Goodfellow, Surface Oxide row).",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "air; ignition temperature as printed, approximately 600 °C"
      },
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Notes; Surface Oxide row"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Air, fine vanadium powder",
      "headline": "Fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric.",
      "effect": "The Goodfellow corrosion row says fine V powder is pyrophoric. The SDS classes vanadium powder as a Category 1 flammable solid (H228).",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "fine powder"
      },
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Notes"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Alkalis and dilute acids",
      "headline": "Vanadium resists alkalis and dilute acids.",
      "effect": "The Goodfellow corrosion row says the metal is good in oxidizing environments, forms a stable V2O5 surface oxide, and is resistant to alkalis and dilute acids. It notes that its corrosion resistance in alkalis is better than most transition metals.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative statement; no concentration or temperature printed"
      },
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Value/Behavior and Notes"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Hydrofluoric acid and hot concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid",
      "headline": "Vanadium is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and by hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid.",
      "effect": "The Goodfellow corrosion row says the metal is attacked by HF and hot concentrated H2SO4 and HNO3.",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative statement; no concentration or temperature printed"
      },
      "source": "goodfellow-v",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Value/Behavior"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Acids and oxidising agents, storage",
      "headline": "The SDS lists acids and oxidising agents as incompatible with vanadium powder.",
      "effect": "The SDS lists acids and oxidizing agents as incompatible materials and advises storing the powder away from oxidizing agents. No corrosion rate was printed.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "powder SDS; no test data"
      },
      "source": "sds-stanford-v",
      "where": "Storage section and Incompatible materials section"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Vanadium powder (SDS product, CAS 7440-62-2) is classified Flam. Sol. 1 (H228, flammable solid) with signal word Danger, and also carries H315 (skin irritation), H319 (serious eye irritation) and H335 (may cause respiratory irritation).",
        "ghs": [
          "H228",
          "H315",
          "H319",
          "H335"
        ],
        "source": "sds-stanford-v",
        "where": "Section 2 Hazards identification, Hazard statements list and Signal word Danger"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem aggregates ECHA C&L notifications for elemental vanadium: 431 of 452 company reports state that the substance does not meet GHS hazard criteria, and the hazard statement entry reads Not Classified.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "pubchem-vanadium",
        "where": "GHS Classification section, aggregated information from 6 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory"
      },
      {
        "text": "Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), the oxide that forms on the metal, is toxic, with a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow).",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "goodfellow-v",
        "where": "Surface Oxide row, Notes"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Ignition of fine vanadium powder",
        "trigger": "Handling fine powder in air",
        "consequence": "Fire, since the powder is pyrophoric (Goodfellow) and a Category 1 flammable solid (SDS). A fire releases toxic metal oxide fume.",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "goodfellow-v",
        "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Notes"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Ignition of bulk metal in hot air",
        "trigger": "Bulk vanadium exposed to air above about 600 °C",
        "consequence": "Ignition of the bulk metal, with oxidation to V2O5 (Goodfellow).",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "goodfellow-v",
        "where": "Corrosion Resistance row, Notes; Surface Oxide row"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Toxic oxide fume and dust",
        "trigger": "Fire, or heating of the metal or its oxide",
        "consequence": "Toxic metal oxide fume is released in a fire (SDS). V2O5 has a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow).",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "sds-stanford-v",
        "where": "Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture, fire-fighting section"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Keep away from heat, sparks, open flames and hot surfaces, and avoid breathing dust (P210 and P261, SDS).",
        "source": "sds-stanford-v"
      },
      {
        "text": "Store locked up (P405) and away from oxidizing agents and acids (SDS storage and incompatible materials sections).",
        "source": "sds-stanford-v"
      },
      {
        "text": "Transport as UN3089, Metal powders, flammable, n.o.s. (Vanadium powder), class 4.1, packing group II (SDS transport section).",
        "source": "sds-stanford-v"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": []
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Vanadium alloying addition in iron and steel (ferrovanadium)",
      "example": "The USGS 2026 summary says metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. vanadium consumption in 2025.",
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-vanadium",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use paragraph"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Ti-6Al-4V aerospace titanium alloy, with vanadium as the beta stabilizer",
      "example": "A NASA Tech Brief on the Materials Data Handbook for Ti-6Al-4V says vanadium is the beta stabilizer and that typical applications are aircraft and missile structures. The USGS says no acceptable substitute for vanadium is available for aerospace titanium alloys.",
      "source": "nasa-tb-ti64",
      "where": "Tech Brief text, first column, paragraph on the alloy and Typical applications paragraph"
    },
    {
      "application": "batteries",
      "device": "Vanadium redox flow battery electrolyte",
      "example": "The USGS says vanadium redox flow batteries were used in large-scale energy storage systems in 2025. A 2023 review gives an operating range of 10 to 40 °C for VRFBs, limited by electrolyte stability.",
      "source": "vrfb-review-tian-2023",
      "where": "Abstract and Section 2.1 Effect of Temperature Variation on the Stability"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Vanadium (mine production, reserves and resources)",
      "abundance": "USGS 2026: world resources of vanadium exceed 63 million tons, and most vanadium is recovered as a byproduct or coproduct. ATI Table 1 gives 150 ppm V in the earth's crust (CRC Handbook, Weast).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China (mine production 2025e, 82,000 t of 110,000 t world total)",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia (mine production 2025e, 21,000 t)",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil (mine production 2025e, 5,300 t)",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "South Africa (mine production 2025e, 5,000 t)",
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: recycling is mainly the reprocessing of vanadium catalysts into new catalysts, and the quantity recycled is uncertain.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: manganese, molybdenum, niobium, titanium and tungsten can partly replace vanadium as steel alloying elements, and platinum and nickel can replace vanadium compounds as catalysts. No acceptable substitute is available for aerospace titanium alloys."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-vanadium",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); World Resources paragraph; Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Vanadium (United States import dependence and sources)",
      "abundance": "USGS 2026: net import reliance was 41 % of apparent consumption in 2025e, down from 46 % in 2024. World reserves are 21,000 thousand metric tons.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Canada (ferrovanadium imports, 2021 to 2024)",
          "share_percent": 50,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "Austria (ferrovanadium imports, 2021 to 2024)",
          "share_percent": 35,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil (vanadium pentoxide imports, 2021 to 2024)",
          "share_percent": 47,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "South Africa (vanadium pentoxide imports, 2021 to 2024)",
          "share_percent": 43,
          "year": 2024
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-vanadium",
      "where": "Salient Statistics table (net import reliance 2025e); Import Sources (2021 to 2024); World Mine Production and Reserves table"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-vanadium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf",
      "year": 2023
    },
    {
      "title": "Goodfellow, Vanadium material data page",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium"
    },
    {
      "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
      "year": 2014
    },
    {
      "title": "NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, Materials Data Handbook on Titanium 6Al-4V",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730000372/downloads/19730000372.pdf",
      "year": 1973
    },
    {
      "title": "NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, vanadium",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=V&all=all&ascii=html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Tian et al., A Review of Electrolyte Additives in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries, Materials 16(13), 4582",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10342886/",
      "year": 2023
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem compound record for vanadium (CID 23990), GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23990/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Electrical resistivity: Goodfellow prints 205 nΩ·m at 20 °C and ATI prints 24.8 to 26.0 microhm-cm at 20 °C. Neither unit is in the site unit registry, so neither value is entered.",
    "Specific heat: ATI prints 0.119 cal/g/°C over 32 to 100 °C. The calorie unit is not in the site unit registry, so the value is not entered.",
    "Tensile and yield strength, and Young's modulus at room temperature: ATI prints annealed sheet values in psi (tensile 29,000 to 35,000 psi, yield 18,000 to 25,000 psi, modulus 18 to 20 x 10^6 psi). psi is not in the site unit registry, so these are not entered.",
    "Hardness: ATI prints Brinell 60 for electron beam ingot. No canonical hardness property exists in the property canon, so it is not entered.",
    "Lattice parameter of body-centred cubic vanadium: Goodfellow prints a = 3.028 Å at room temperature. Angstrom is not in the unit registry, so it is not entered.",
    "Atomic weight: not a property-canon benchmark; the NIST value 50.9415 is used in the recipe parts only.",
    "Thermal neutron absorption cross section (4.7 barns, ATI) and electronic work function (3.79 eV, ATI) are not entered: barn and eV are not in the unit registry.",
    "No UNS, ASTM, EN, DIN, JIS or AMS designation for unalloyed vanadium was printed in a source read in this run, so designations is empty.",
    "Critical-mineral list status: the USGS 2026 vanadium summary read in this run prints no critical-mineral list, and the EU critical raw materials list was not opened, so critical_lists is empty.",
    "No atomic-oxygen erosion yield, outgassing, total mass loss or radiation test for vanadium in space was found in the sources read.",
    "Oxidation kinetics of bulk vanadium at 200 to 600 °C: no quantitative source was found. The only oxidation statements come from the Goodfellow page and the SDS.",
    "Production process steps beyond aluminothermic reduction and electron beam melting: not read from a primary source.",
    "Mine production shares by country are not computed in this profile: the USGS prints tonnes, and the percentages were not printed in the source.",
    "Media: no public-domain image of vanadium metal was checked in this run, so media is empty."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Vanadium is a soft, ductile metal whose main value is alloying. The USGS says metallurgical use was more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025, and no acceptable substitute exists for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys. Its density of 6.11 g/cm3 and melting point of 1910 °C come from the SDS.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Steel",
        "line": "Vanadium is mainly an alloying agent for iron and steel. The USGS says metallurgical use accounted for more than 90 % of reported U.S. consumption in 2025."
      },
      {
        "where": "Aerospace titanium",
        "line": "Vanadium is the beta stabilizer in Ti-6Al-4V, used in aircraft and missile structures (NASA Tech Brief, 1973)."
      },
      {
        "where": "Energy storage",
        "line": "Vanadium redox flow batteries were used in large-scale energy storage in 2025 (USGS). A 2023 review gives an operating range of 10 to 40 °C, limited by electrolyte stability."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Carry heat",
        "line": "Goodfellow prints a thermal conductivity of 30.7 W/m·K for vanadium, without a temperature.",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "30.7 W/(m·K)"
      },
      {
        "label": "Weight",
        "line": "The SDS prints a density of 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C. ATI prints 6.1 g/cc at 200 °C.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "6.11 g/cm3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Melting",
        "line": "The SDS prints a melting point of 1910 °C. ATI prints 1900 °C for commercial vanadium.",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "1910 °C"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "Goodfellow prints a Young's modulus of 128 GPa for vanadium.",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "128 GPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Ductility",
        "line": "ATI prints a typical elongation of 35 to 60 % for annealed sheet, measured in 2 inches.",
        "benchmark": "elongation",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "35 to 60 %"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "The three rows below use the SDS and ATI values for density, melting point and thermal conductivity. The SDS gives 6.11 g/cm3 at 20 °C and 1910 °C, and ATI gives 6.1 g/cc at 200 °C and 1900 °C for commercial metal. Goodfellow gives 30.7 W/m·K thermal conductivity without a temperature. The two melting points differ by 10 °C and both are kept with their conditions.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Melting point",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Keep vanadium powder away from heat, sparks and open flames, and avoid breathing dust (SDS P210 and P261).",
      "Store locked up, away from oxidizing agents and acids (SDS P405 and storage section).",
      "Treat the oxide V2O5 as toxic, with a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 (Goodfellow)."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Alloying: vanadium is used in steel and in Ti-6Al-4V aerospace titanium, and the USGS says no acceptable substitute exists for aerospace titanium alloys.",
      "Structural strength in titanium: Ti-6Al-4V uses vanadium as the beta stabilizer (NASA Tech Brief).",
      "Energy storage: vanadium electrolytes are used in redox flow batteries, which the USGS reports in use for large-scale storage."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Fire: fine vanadium powder is pyrophoric and the powder is a Category 1 flammable solid (Goodfellow, SDS).",
      "Oxidation: bulk vanadium ignites above about 600 °C in air (Goodfellow).",
      "Supply: China produced 82,000 t of about 110,000 t of world mine output in 2025e, and the United States had 41 % net import reliance (USGS 2026).",
      "No space outgassing, erosion yield or radiation data for vanadium were found in the sources read."
    ],
    "verdict": "Vanadium is a soft, ductile metal whose main value is as an alloying element for steel and aerospace titanium, with 6.11 g/cm3 density and 1910 °C melting point. Its powder is pyrophoric and bulk metal ignites above about 600 °C, and its oxide is toxic. Supply is concentrated in China, and this profile has no sourced space-environment test data.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Vanadium is a single-element metal (V, atomic number 23, body-centred cubic per ATI). Commercial vanadium is made by aluminothermic reduction of high-purity V2O5 with aluminium, 10Al + 3V2O5 gives 6V + 5Al2O3, with excess aluminium added to lower the oxygen content, followed by electron beam melting to raise the purity (ATI datasheet).",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Vanadium",
          "symbol": "V",
          "role": "The base metal. Density 6.11 g/cm3 and melting point 1910 °C (SDS), and it is a soft, very ductile metal (ATI).",
          "atoms": 1,
          "atomic_weight": 50.9415
        },
        {
          "name": "Aluminium",
          "symbol": "Al",
          "role": "Reductant for V2O5 in the aluminothermic step, and oxygen scavenger that lowers the oxygen content of the reduced metal (ATI).",
          "share_note": "excess over stoichiometry, not quantified in the datasheet"
        },
        {
          "name": "Oxygen",
          "symbol": "O",
          "role": "Residual interstitial impurity that the excess aluminium is added to lower (ATI).",
          "share_note": "350 ppm typical in commercial vanadium (ATI Table 2)"
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The powder is a flammable solid in the supplier SDS, and it irritates skin, eyes and the airways. The oxide is toxic.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Vanadium powder",
            "line": "The SDS classes vanadium powder as Flam. Sol. 1 (H228) with signal word Danger, and also gives H315, H319 and H335."
          },
          {
            "label": "Vanadium pentoxide",
            "line": "Goodfellow gives a TLV-TWA of 0.05 mg/m3 for V2O5, the oxide that forms on the metal."
          }
        ],
        "level": 2,
        "verdict": "Flammable powder and toxic oxide, handle with the usual…"
      },
      {
        "title": "If it fails",
        "lead": "The failure routes are fire from fine powder, ignition of bulk metal above about 600 °C, and toxic oxide fume in a fire.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Pyrophoric powder",
            "line": "Goodfellow says fine V powder is pyrophoric."
          },
          {
            "label": "Bulk ignition",
            "line": "Bulk V oxidises slowly in air at room temperature but ignites above about 600 °C (Goodfellow)."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-26",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 13,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 4,
    "note": "Values were read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry (PDFs extracted with pdftotext). Values come from a powder SDS, a supplier material page and a 2014 ATI typical-value datasheet, so they are not a single certified grade. The 1910 versus 1900 °C melting point and 3407 versus 3400 °C boiling point are printed differently by two sources and both are kept with their conditions. Electrical resistivity, specific heat and the psi-based strengths are left as gaps because their units are not in the site registry."
  },
  "sources": {
    "usgs-mcs2026-vanadium": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium, February 2026",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, prepared by Désirée E. Polyak",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-vanadium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "sds-stanford-v": {
      "title": "Safety data sheet, Vanadium Powder (CAS 7440-62-2), Stanford Advanced Materials, date revised 02/02/2023",
      "id": "CAS 7440-62-2, EC 231-171-1",
      "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1697121437-spherical-vanadium-powder-sds.pdf",
      "year": 2023,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "goodfellow-v": {
      "title": "Goodfellow, Vanadium material page (general properties, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, surface oxide)",
      "id": "Goodfellow material page, metals, vanadium",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/material/metals/vanadium",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "ati-v-tds": {
      "title": "ATI Commercial Vanadium Technical Data Sheet, version 1, 2014",
      "id": "ATI Properties Inc., Pittsburgh",
      "url": "https://www.atimaterials.com/Products/Documents/datasheets/niobium-hafnium-tantalum-vanadium/vanadium/ati_commercial_vanadium_tds_en_v1.pdf",
      "year": 2014,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "nasa-tb-ti64": {
      "title": "NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, Materials Data Handbook on Titanium 6Al-4V, Marshall Space Flight Center",
      "id": "NASA Tech Brief B73-10372, October 1973",
      "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730000372/downloads/19730000372.pdf",
      "year": 1973,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "NASA public document"
    },
    "nist-atomic-weights-v": {
      "title": "NIST Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements, vanadium",
      "id": "NIST standard atomic weight 50.9415(1)",
      "url": "https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=V&all=all&ascii=html",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "US government data"
    },
    "vrfb-review-tian-2023": {
      "title": "Tian et al., A Review of Electrolyte Additives in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries, Materials (Basel) 2023, 16(13), 4582",
      "id": "DOI 10.3390/ma16134582",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10342886/",
      "year": 2023,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "open access, CC BY (PubMed Central)"
    },
    "pubchem-vanadium": {
      "title": "PubChem compound record: Vanadium (CID 23990), GHS Classification section",
      "id": "CID 23990, ECHA C&L Inventory aggregated notifications",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23990/JSON?heading=GHS+Classification",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem (NCBI), public domain; sections attributed to ECHA"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/vanadium/"
}