{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "tungsten-carbide",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "refractory-metals",
  "name": "Tungsten carbide (cemented carbide)",
  "abbreviation": "WC",
  "role": "wear-resistant hard phase, held together by a cobalt binder",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "refractory-metals",
  "summary": "Cemented carbide, also called hardmetal, is tungsten carbide (WC) grains held together by a cobalt binder. ITIA says hardmetals are used for metal machining, rock drilling, wood and plastic cutting, and in wear parts, and Wikipedia says cemented carbides are used extensively for cutting tools. Hardness and density depend on the cobalt content and the grain size, so each value here is tied to one grade. For the metal itself, see the [tungsten profile](/profiles/tungsten/).",
  "best_for": "Cutting and wear parts where hardness matters most (less cobalt, fine grain), and mining drill bits and crusher parts, which Hyperion's mining table lists in 6 percent cobalt grades",
  "weakest_at": "Toughness: Hyperion ties high toughness to 10 to 20 percent binder and high hardness to sub-micron grains with 3 to 15 percent binder. The dust carries a cobalt and hardmetal health hazard and a rare fire risk (Sandvik SDS).",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "WC (tungsten monocarbide), cemented with a cobalt (Co) binder",
    "cas": "12070-12-1",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "pubchem-wc",
    "where": "PubChem CID 2724274 (title Tungsten carbide, formula record CW, molecular weight 195.85 g/mol); CAS 12070-12-1 from the Sandvik SDS section 3; W 183.84 g/mol from PubChem CID 23964; C 12.011 g/mol from PubChem CID 5462310"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "in-space-manufacturing",
      "rovers-and-surface-systems",
      "mechanisms"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 14.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6T",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "not printed",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Carbide roll grade table, Density column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-rolls",
      "where": "Tungsten Carbide Grade Data table, row H6T, Density (g/cm 3) column (14.8)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Tungsten Carbide Grade Data (carbide rolls), physical and mechanical properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, carbide roll grade data page",
        "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Carbide-Rolls/grade-data/",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1350,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6T",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "not printed",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": 20,
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Carbide roll grade table, Hardness at 20 °C, HV30 column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-rolls",
      "where": "Tungsten Carbide Grade Data table, row H6T, HV30 column (1350)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Tungsten Carbide Grade Data (carbide rolls), physical and mechanical properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, carbide roll grade data page",
        "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Carbide-Rolls/grade-data/",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "rockwell_a_hardness",
      "value": 90,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HRA",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6T",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "not printed",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": 20,
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Carbide roll grade table, Hardness at 20 °C, HRA column, as printed (90.0)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-rolls",
      "where": "Tungsten Carbide Grade Data table, row H6T, HRA column (90.0)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Tungsten Carbide Grade Data (carbide rolls), physical and mechanical properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, carbide roll grade data page",
        "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Carbide-Rolls/grade-data/",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 15,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6P",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Density (g/cm 3) column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row H6P, Density 15.0 g/cm 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1340,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6P",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Hardness (HV30) column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row H6P, HV30 column (1,340)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 14.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PM06",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Normal (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Density (g/cm 3) column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PM06, Density 14.9 g/cm 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1440,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PM06",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Normal (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Hardness (HV30) column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PM06, HV30 column (1,440)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 14.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PS06",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Density (g/cm 3) column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PS06, Density 14.9 g/cm 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1300,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PS06",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Mining drill bits",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Hardness (HV30) column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PS06, HV30 column (1,300)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 14.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6N",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Normal (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Crusher parts",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Density (g/cm 3) column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row H6N, Density 14.9 g/cm 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1605,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "H6N",
        "wc_wt_percent": 94,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 6,
        "wc_grain_size": "Normal (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "Crusher parts",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Hardness (HV30) column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row H6N, HV30 column (1,605)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 14.4,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PN10",
        "wc_wt_percent": 90,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 10,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "HPGR studs",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Density (g/cm 3) column, as printed; the page says all data shown are typical values",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PN10, Density 14.4 g/cm 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 1200,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV30",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "PN10",
        "wc_wt_percent": 90,
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 10,
        "wc_grain_size": "Coarse (printed word, no micrometre value)",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "test_temperature_c": "not printed",
        "typical_application": "HPGR studs",
        "basis": "typical value, per the page note"
      },
      "method": "Mining Grade Properties table, Hardness (HV30) column, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Mining Grade Properties table, row PN10, HV30 column (1,200)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
        "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
        "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 15.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "wc_grain_size": "not applicable (compound page)",
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC compound page, Density row, as printed (15.6000 g/cm3); aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Compound properties table, Density row (15.6000 g/cm3)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 530,
      "value_high": 700,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC text gives Young's modulus as a range, 530-700 GPa; aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Mechanical properties paragraph (Young's modulus 530-700 GPa)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 110,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "temperature": "room temperature, as printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC text: thermal conductivity 110 W/(m·K) at room temperature; aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Thermal properties paragraph (110 W/(m·K) at room temperature)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 5.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "μm/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC text: coefficient of thermal expansion 5.5 μm/(m·K), temperature not printed; aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Thermal properties paragraph (5.5 μm/(m·K))",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "value": 2600,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HV",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC text: Vickers hardness number of approximately 2600, printed as approximate; aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Printed as approximately 2600 on the page.",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Mechanical properties paragraph (approximately 2600)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "compressive_strength",
      "value": 2.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "pure WC compound (no binder)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 0,
        "temperature": "not printed"
      },
      "method": "WebQC text: ultimate compression strength of approximately 2.7 GPa, printed as approximate; aggregator page with no primary reference",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Printed as approximately 2.7 GPa. Compressive strength is not a canonical property name.",
      "source": "webqc-wc",
      "where": "Mechanical properties paragraph (ultimate compression strength)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
        "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
        "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 4.4,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "not printed (cemented tungsten carbide with 5.9 percent cobalt)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 5.9,
        "wc_grain_size": "not stated in the abstract",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature_range_c": "20 to 60",
        "unit_in_source": "X 10-6 per degree centigrade"
      },
      "method": "Hidnert 1937, Abstract: average coefficient of linear expansion for 5.9 percent cobalt from 20 to 60 °C, printed as 4.4 X 10-6 per degree centigrade (the same as ppm/K)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-hidnert-1937",
      "where": "Abstract, RP960, p. 47 (first statement on 5.9 percent cobalt)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960)",
        "id": "NIST J. Research NBS 18 (RP960), January 1937, p. 47",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
        "year": 1937,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "NIST publication (public domain, cited)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 5.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "not printed (cemented tungsten carbide with 5.9 percent cobalt)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": 5.9,
        "wc_grain_size": "not stated in the abstract",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature_range_c": "300 to 400",
        "unit_in_source": "X 10-6 per degree centigrade"
      },
      "method": "Hidnert 1937, Abstract: average coefficient of linear expansion for 5.9 percent cobalt from 300 to 400 °C, printed as 5.9 X 10-6 per degree centigrade (the same as ppm/K)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-hidnert-1937",
      "where": "Abstract, RP960, p. 47 (first statement on 5.9 percent cobalt)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960)",
        "id": "NIST J. Research NBS 18 (RP960), January 1937, p. 47",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
        "year": 1937,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "NIST publication (public domain, cited)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "not printed (cemented tungsten carbide, about 13 percent cobalt, not WC-12Co)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": "12.9 to 13.2",
        "wc_grain_size": "not stated in the abstract",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature_range_c": "20 to 60",
        "unit_in_source": "X 10-6 per degree centigrade"
      },
      "method": "Hidnert 1937, Abstract: average coefficient of linear expansion for three samples with 12.9 to 13.2 percent cobalt from 20 to 60 °C, printed as 5.0 X 10-6 per degree centigrade",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-hidnert-1937",
      "where": "Abstract, RP960, p. 47 (second statement, 12.9 to 13.2 percent cobalt)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960)",
        "id": "NIST J. Research NBS 18 (RP960), January 1937, p. 47",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
        "year": 1937,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "NIST publication (public domain, cited)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 6.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6/°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "not printed (cemented tungsten carbide, about 13 percent cobalt, not WC-12Co)",
        "cobalt_wt_percent": "12.9 to 13.2",
        "wc_grain_size": "not stated in the abstract",
        "iso_class": "not printed",
        "temperature_range_c": "300 to 400",
        "unit_in_source": "X 10-6 per degree centigrade"
      },
      "method": "Hidnert 1937, Abstract: average coefficient of linear expansion for three samples with 12.9 to 13.2 percent cobalt from 300 to 400 °C, printed as 6.7 X 10-6 per degree centigrade",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nist-hidnert-1937",
      "where": "Abstract, RP960, p. 47 (second statement, 12.9 to 13.2 percent cobalt)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960)",
        "id": "NIST J. Research NBS 18 (RP960), January 1937, p. 47",
        "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
        "year": 1937,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "NIST publication (public domain, cited)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Acids and oxidizing agents (storage)",
      "headline": "The SDS says to store away from acids and oxidizing agents.",
      "effect": "Sandvik SDS section 7.2 says to store under dry and cool conditions away from incompatible materials, named as acids and oxidizing agents. Section 10.5 of the same SDS lists no known incompatible materials, so the storage advice is the cautious reading. No concentrations or temperatures are given.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative storage advice; no concentrations or temperatures given"
      },
      "source": "sandvik-sds",
      "where": "Section 7.2 (storage) and section 10.5 (incompatible materials)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Air (cobalt binder)",
      "headline": "One PubChem record says cobalt corrodes readily in air.",
      "effect": "PubChem's stability entry for cobalt says 'Corrodes readily in air.' It cites Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 16th edition, p. 347, and gives no temperature, humidity or time. The same entry also says 'Stable under recommended storage conditions.'",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative statement from a handbook entry; no temperature, humidity or exposure time"
      },
      "source": "pubchem-co-stab",
      "where": "Stability/Shelf Life section, CID 104730"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Abrasion from rock and metal (wear parts)",
      "headline": "High abrasion resistance is the reason for the wear uses.",
      "effect": "ITIA says the high abrasion resistance of hardmetal is used in wear parts for tunnel boring, road construction and agriculture. No wear rate is printed in the fetched sources.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative statement; no test or wear rate given"
      },
      "source": "itia-apps",
      "where": "Tungsten carbide products section (ITIA applications page)"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Cobalt: PubChem's aggregated GHS record lists H317 (allergic skin reaction), H334 (breathing difficulties if inhaled), H341 (suspected of causing genetic defects), H350 (may cause cancer), H360F (may damage fertility) and H413 (long-lasting harmful effects to aquatic life). Signal words Danger and Warning are printed as in the record.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H334",
          "H341",
          "H350",
          "H360F",
          "H413"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-co-ghs",
        "where": "GHS Classification, ECHA aggregated, CID 104730"
      },
      {
        "text": "Cemented carbide blank with 3% to 10% cobalt (Sandvik SDS): signal word Danger. Section 2.1 lists H330, H350i, H372, H361f, H334, H317, H400 and H411; section 2.2 labels H410 for the aquatic hazard. The SDS covers only that cobalt range.",
        "ghs": [
          "H330",
          "H350i",
          "H372",
          "H361f",
          "H334",
          "H317",
          "H400",
          "H411"
        ],
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Sections 2.1 and 2.2 (classification and label), product name in section 1.1"
      },
      {
        "text": "Tungsten carbide itself is not classified under GHS in this SDS. The hazards come from the cobalt and from the dust.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 3 (composition), tungsten carbide row, CAS 12070-12-1"
      },
      {
        "text": "Dust: chronic inhalation of hardmetal powder or dust may cause lasting respiratory disease, including occupational asthma and interstitial lung fibrosis. Hardmetal powders may cause an allergic skin reaction.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 4.2 (most important symptoms and effects)"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Dust fire or explosion",
        "trigger": "Rare conditions of particle size, dispersion and concentration, with a strong ignition source",
        "consequence": "Tungsten carbide and cobalt powders or dusts may present a fire or explosion hazard.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 5.2 (special hazards arising from the substance)"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Do not breathe dust (P260, section 2.2). Avoid skin and eye contact, and the formation and accumulation of dust (section 6.1 and section 10.4).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 2.2 (P260), section 6.1 and section 10.4"
      },
      {
        "text": "Clean up by vacuuming through a filter, or by wet clean-up, which avoid raising dust (section 6.3).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 6.3 (methods for containment and cleaning up)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Wear protective gloves, goggles and a dust respirator as section 8 sets out (P280, section 2.2).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 2.2 (P280) and section 8"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Ensure adequate ventilation and, if necessary, exhaust ventilation when handling or transferring the material (section 7.1).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 7.1 (precautions for safe handling)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Engineering controls may include local ventilation systems with dust filters (section 8.2).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 8.2 (exposure controls)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Use respiratory protection as appropriate, for example P-series particle filters (section 8.2).",
        "source": "sandvik-sds",
        "where": "Section 8.2 (exposure controls, respiratory protection)"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "in-space-manufacturing",
      "device": "Metal-machining cutting tools",
      "example": "ITIA says hardmetals are used for metal machining, rock drilling, wood and plastic cutting.",
      "source": "itia-apps",
      "where": "Tungsten carbide products section (ITIA applications page)"
    },
    {
      "application": "rovers-and-surface-systems",
      "device": "Mining drill bits and rock drilling tools",
      "example": "Hyperion lists H6P, PM06 and PS06 (6 percent binder) for mining drill bits, H6N for crusher parts and PN10 for HPGR studs.",
      "source": "hyperion-mining",
      "where": "Typical Application column, Mining Grade Properties table"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Wear parts for tunnel boring, road construction and agriculture",
      "example": "ITIA says the high abrasion resistance of hardmetal is used in wear parts for tunnel boring, road construction, agriculture and many more applications.",
      "source": "itia-apps",
      "where": "Tungsten carbide products section (ITIA applications page)"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Tungsten, mine output (2025, USGS MCS 2026)",
      "abundance": "USGS gives no crustal abundance figure. Shares are computed from the printed 2025 tonnes of contained tungsten over the printed world total of 85,000 t.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 78.8,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Vietnam",
          "share_percent": 3.5,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 2.8,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 2.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Korea, North",
          "share_percent": 2.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Bolivia",
          "share_percent": 2,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS withholds the 2025 secondary tungsten quantity to avoid disclosing company data, so no recycling share is given.",
      "substitutes": [
        "Cemented carbides based on molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide or titanium carbide, ceramics, cermets and tool steels. USGS says most of these reduce rather than replace the tungsten used."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-tungsten",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025 column; Recycling and Substitutes paragraphs"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Tungsten reserves and trade (USGS MCS 2026)",
      "abundance": "China holds 2,500,000 t of tungsten reserves out of more than 4,700,000 t world total (about 53 percent, computed). US net import reliance is more than 50 percent. Import sources 2021 to 2024: China 26 percent, Germany 14 percent, Bolivia 8 percent, Vietnam 8 percent. China added export controls on selected tungsten items in February 2025, and Rotterdam APT rose from $331 to $675 per metric ton unit during 2025.",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-tungsten",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table; Net import reliance table; Import Sources and Events paragraphs"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Tungsten carbide share of tungsten use (ITIA)",
      "abundance": "ITIA says tungsten carbide products represent almost two-thirds (65 percent) of total global tungsten consumption.",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "itia-apps",
      "where": "Tungsten Carbide Products section (ITIA applications page)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Cobalt, mine output (2025, USGS MCS 2026)",
      "abundance": "Identified world terrestrial cobalt resources are about 25 million tons, mostly in Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia. Reserves total 12,000,000 t in the USGS table. USGS says Congo (Kinshasa) replaced a February 2025 export ban with export quotas of up to 96,600 tons a year for 2026 and 2027.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Congo (Kinshasa)",
          "share_percent": 73,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 14,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "In 2025, cobalt content of purchased scrap was 25 percent of estimated cobalt consumption (USGS).",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS says that, depending on the application, substitution for cobalt could result in a loss in product performance."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-cobalt",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues paragraph; World Mine Production and Reserves table; Recycling and Substitutes paragraphs"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Cobalt imports (USGS, 2021 to 2024)",
      "abundance": "Metal, oxide and salts: Norway 26 percent, Finland 16 percent, Canada 14 percent, Japan 14 percent, other 30 percent.",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-cobalt",
      "where": "Import Sources (2021 to 2024) line"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Tungsten",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tungsten.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cobalt.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960, J. Research NBS 18, 1937)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
      "year": 1937
    },
    {
      "title": "Sandvik safety data sheet: hardmetal blank containing tungsten carbide and cobalt, 3% to 10% Co (version 4.0)",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://cdn2.sandvik.coromant.com/files/a53b485b-be0f-019d-8100-3f0d1619b9fa/b16b7cf5-c891-46d0-bbe9-cd0b5934062e/blank-104-2en-us.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hyperion Materials: Tungsten Carbide Grade Data (rolls)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Carbide-Rolls/grade-data/"
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Tungsten carbide (CID 2724274)",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/2724274"
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Cobalt (CID 104730)",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/104730"
    },
    {
      "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "ITIA: Tungsten applications and markets",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.itia.info/applications-markets/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Wikipedia: Cemented carbide",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemented_carbide"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Transverse rupture strength by grade: no fetched page printed a TRS value for WC-6Co, WC-10Co or WC-12Co. The Stanford Advanced Materials WC-Co datasheet with TRS by grade is a PDF that would not parse in this run, so it is not used.",
    "Compressive strength by grade: none printed for a cobalt grade. Only WebQC's approximate pure-WC value (2.7 GPa) is entered, with the caveat that WebQC is an aggregator.",
    "Young's modulus and thermal conductivity for cobalt grades: none printed in the fetched pages. The only values are WebQC's pure-WC figures, which have no primary reference.",
    "Thermal expansion for WC-10Co and WC-12Co: none printed. The 1937 NIST paper covers 5.9 percent and 12.9 to 13.2 percent cobalt only, so it is not used as a WC-10Co or WC-12Co value.",
    "WC-12Co: the Hyperion tables list 6, 9, 10 and 11 percent binder, not 12, so no WC-12Co density or hardness is entered. The 2017 SciELO compilation gives 1748 kgf/mm2 for WC-12Co with no grain size or test load, so it is not entered either.",
    "Grain size: the Hyperion tables print grain classes as words (Coarse, Normal, Submicron) with no micrometre value, and the H6T row prints none. No ISO K or C grade class is printed for any row used, so iso_class reads 'not printed'.",
    "Hyperion values are marked as typical values on the page. They are not guaranteed minimums.",
    "Not used: Hyperion rows with 9 percent binder (H8N, 409, H10C), H10F (WC 90 with binder 11, a total of 101), and the C-grades (C10C to C30T), which use a mixed binder rather than cobalt alone.",
    "Pure WC: TotalMateria's table gives a density for WC that does not match WebQC's 15.6 g/cm3, so it is not entered. PubChem has no GHS or melting-point record for tungsten carbide (CID 2724274).",
    "Critical minerals: neither the USGS 2026 tungsten nor the cobalt summary mentions a critical-minerals list, and no other list was fetched, so critical_lists is empty.",
    "Corrosion: no oxidation rate in air and no acid-attack rate for cemented carbide was printed in the fetched pages. The entries are qualitative. The Sandvik SDS storage text (section 7.2) and its incompatibility line (section 10.5) conflict.",
    "The PubChem 'Corrodes readily in air' statement cites Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary and gives no conditions. It is recorded as printed, with no rating.",
    "Wear: ITIA gives high abrasion resistance without a wear rate, and no numeric wear data were printed in the fetched pages.",
    "Side effects: no source was found for risks.side_effects, so the list is empty.",
    "Hazard codes for cobalt contents above 10 percent were not fetched. The Sandvik SDS covers 3 to 10 percent cobalt only.",
    "Failure-risk severity is the author's assessment. The source does not print a severity.",
    "The NIST values are from 1937, and the samples have no stated grain size.",
    "The tungsten profile is linked in text only. Its values were not re-checked for this file."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Cemented carbide, also called tungsten carbide or hardmetal, is a composite of hard tungsten carbide grains in a tougher cobalt matrix. The mix sets the trade-off. Hyperion's 6 percent cobalt grades run from 1,300 to 1,605 HV30, and its 10 percent grade (PN10) is 1,200 HV30, so less cobalt gives more hardness. ITIA says the same family of materials serves metal cutting, rock drilling and wear parts. For the metal itself, see the [tungsten profile](/profiles/tungsten/).",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Metal machining and cutting",
        "line": "ITIA says hardmetals are used for metal machining, rock drilling, wood and plastic cutting."
      },
      {
        "where": "Mining drill bits and crusher parts",
        "line": "Hyperion lists its 6 percent grades H6P, PM06 and PS06 for mining drill bits, H6N for crusher parts, and PN10 for HPGR studs."
      },
      {
        "where": "Wear parts",
        "line": "ITIA says the high abrasion resistance of hardmetal is used in wear parts for tunnel boring, road construction and agriculture."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Hardness (6 percent cobalt)",
        "line": "Hyperion's H6T grade is 1350 HV30 and 90.0 HRA at 20 °C, typical values from its roll grade table.",
        "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "1350 HV30 (H6T); 1300 to 1605 HV30 across the 6 percent grades"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density (6 percent cobalt)",
        "line": "Density runs from 14.8 g/cm3 (H6T) to 15.0 g/cm3 (H6P) for the 6 percent grades. These are typical values from Hyperion.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "14.8 to 15.0 g/cm3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness (pure WC)",
        "line": "WebQC gives a Young's modulus of 530 to 700 GPa for pure tungsten carbide. WebQC is an aggregator page, so the figure is a lead, not a primary value.",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "530 to 700 GPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal expansion (5.9 percent cobalt)",
        "line": "The 1937 NIST paper gives an average expansion of 4.4 x 10-6 per degree C from 20 to 60 °C, rising to 5.9 x 10-6 from 300 to 400 °C, for samples with 5.9 percent cobalt.",
        "benchmark": "cte",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "4.4 to 5.9 x 10-6 per degree C"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Within this file, the 6 percent cobalt grades are both harder and denser than PN10 (1,200 HV30 and 14.4 g/cm3), since density and hardness both fall as the binder rises in Hyperion's table. Pure tungsten carbide is denser again, at 15.6 g/cm3 in WebQC, but that figure comes from an aggregator page. For the metal itself, see the [tungsten profile](/profiles/tungsten/).",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Hardness (HV30)",
        "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal expansion",
        "benchmark": "cte",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Do not breathe the dust (P260). Avoid skin and eye contact, and do not let dust build up (SDS section 6.1 and section 10.4).",
      "Clean up by vacuuming through a filter or by wet clean-up, which avoid raising dust (SDS section 6.3).",
      "Wear gloves, goggles and a dust respirator as section 8 sets out (P280)."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Cutting, machining and wear parts where hardness matters most. Hyperion ties 3 to 15 percent binder with sub-micron grains to high hardness and compressive strength.",
      "Mining drill bits and crusher parts. Hyperion's mining table lists its 6 percent grades for these uses."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Dust is a health hazard. Cobalt carries several GHS codes, and chronic inhalation of hardmetal dust can cause lung disease (SDS section 4.2; PubChem).",
      "Fire and explosion: powders and dusts may present a fire or explosion hazard under rare conditions (SDS section 5.2).",
      "Supply is concentrated. China produced 78.8 percent of 2025 tungsten mine output (computed from USGS), and Congo (Kinshasa) produced 73 percent of 2025 cobalt (USGS)."
    ],
    "verdict": "Cemented carbide is the choice where hardness and wear resistance matter more than toughness. Hardness and density change with the cobalt level and grain size, so compare one grade at a time. The file is strong on hardness and density by grade and thin on transverse rupture strength, compressive strength by grade, and modulus and conductivity for the cobalt grades. Those need a primary source before design use.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Cemented carbide is tungsten carbide grains bound by a cobalt binder. Hyperion's mining table lists 94 percent WC with 6 percent Co for its 6 percent grades, and 90 percent WC with 10 percent Co for PN10. Wikipedia describes the making step: the material is heated until the binder becomes liquid while the carbide grains stay solid, and the powder is sintered into one dense composite. Tungsten carbide has a formula weight of 195.85 g/mol (PubChem).",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Tungsten carbide",
          "symbol": "WC",
          "role": "hard phase: the grains that give hardness and wear resistance",
          "share_percent": 90,
          "share_high": 94,
          "source": "hyperion-mining",
          "where": "WC (%) column, Mining Grade Properties table (94 for the 6 percent grades, 90 for PN10)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Cobalt",
          "symbol": "Co",
          "role": "binder: the metal that holds the grains together",
          "share_percent": 6,
          "share_high": 10,
          "source": "hyperion-mining",
          "where": "Binder (%) column, Mining Grade Properties table (6 for the 6 percent grades, 10 for PN10)"
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "Tungsten carbide itself is not classified under GHS in the Sandvik SDS. The classified parts are the cobalt binder and the dust.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Cobalt",
            "line": "PubChem's aggregated GHS record for cobalt lists H317, H334, H341, H350, H360F and H413, with the signal words Danger and Warning."
          },
          {
            "label": "Dust",
            "line": "The Sandvik SDS says chronic inhalation of hardmetal dust can cause occupational asthma and interstitial lung fibrosis, and that hardmetal powders may cause an allergic skin reaction."
          }
        ],
        "level": 3,
        "verdict": "Dust and cobalt need controls"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fire and explosion",
        "lead": "Under rare conditions of particle size, dispersion and concentration with a strong ignition source, the dust can ignite.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Dust",
            "line": "The SDS calls the conditions rare, and says fine powders and dusts may present a fire or explosion hazard."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Rare, but real"
      },
      {
        "title": "Storage",
        "lead": "The SDS asks for dry, cool storage away from incompatible materials, named as acids and oxidizing agents.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Conflict",
            "line": "The same SDS lists no known incompatible materials in section 10.5, so the storage rule is the cautious reading."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Keep dry, away from acids"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-24",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 23,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 23,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24. Values come from Hyperion grade tables (typical values), NIST RP960 (1937, cobalt levels 5.9 and 12.9 to 13.2 percent) and WebQC (aggregator, pure WC). Transverse rupture strength and compressive strength by grade, and modulus and conductivity for cobalt grades, are not in the record. See gaps."
  },
  "sources": {
    "hyperion-rolls": {
      "title": "Hyperion Materials: Tungsten Carbide Grade Data (carbide rolls), physical and mechanical properties",
      "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, carbide roll grade data page",
      "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Carbide-Rolls/grade-data/",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "hyperion-mining": {
      "title": "Hyperion Materials: Mining Grade Properties",
      "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, mining grade properties page",
      "url": "https://hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/products/Mining/grade-properties",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "hyperion-wc-co": {
      "title": "Hyperion Materials: WC-Co grades of cemented carbide",
      "id": "Hyperion Materials and Technologies, WC-Co grade overview",
      "url": "https://www.hyperionmt.com/ja-jp/Resources/materials/cemented-carbide/wc-co-grades",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-tungsten": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Tungsten",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, tungsten",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tungsten.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "US government work (public domain)"
    },
    "usgs-cobalt": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, cobalt",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cobalt.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "US government work (public domain)"
    },
    "nist-hidnert-1937": {
      "title": "Hidnert, P.: Thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide (NBS Research Paper RP960)",
      "id": "NIST J. Research NBS 18 (RP960), January 1937, p. 47",
      "url": "https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/18/jresv18n1p47_A1b.pdf",
      "year": 1937,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "NIST publication (public domain, cited)"
    },
    "sandvik-sds": {
      "title": "Sandvik safety data sheet: hardmetal blank containing tungsten carbide and cobalt, 3% to 10% Co",
      "id": "Sandvik Coromant SDS, version 4.0",
      "url": "https://cdn2.sandvik.coromant.com/files/a53b485b-be0f-019d-8100-3f0d1619b9fa/b16b7cf5-c891-46d0-bbe9-cd0b5934062e/blank-104-2en-us.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer SDS (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pubchem-wc": {
      "title": "PubChem: Tungsten carbide (CID 2724274), formula and molecular weight",
      "id": "PubChem compound record 2724274",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug/compound/cid/2724274/property/MolecularFormula,MolecularWeight,Title/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Public domain record (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pubchem-co-ghs": {
      "title": "PubChem: Cobalt (CID 104730), GHS classification",
      "id": "PubChem compound record 104730, GHS Classification",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/104730/JSON?heading=GHS%20Classification",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Public domain record (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pubchem-co-stab": {
      "title": "PubChem: Cobalt (CID 104730), stability entry",
      "id": "PubChem compound record 104730, Stability/Shelf Life",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/104730/JSON?heading=Stability/Shelf%20Life",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Public domain record (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pubchem-w": {
      "title": "PubChem: Tungsten (CID 23964), molecular weight",
      "id": "PubChem compound record 23964",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug/compound/cid/23964/property/MolecularFormula,MolecularWeight,Title/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Public domain record (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pubchem-c": {
      "title": "PubChem: Carbon (CID 5462310), molecular weight",
      "id": "PubChem compound record 5462310",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug/compound/cid/5462310/property/MolecularFormula,MolecularWeight,Title/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Public domain record (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "webqc-wc": {
      "title": "WebQC: Tungsten carbide (WC) compound properties",
      "id": "WebQC compound page for WC",
      "url": "https://www.webqc.org/compound-WC-WC.html",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Website (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "wikipedia-cc": {
      "title": "Wikipedia: Cemented carbide",
      "id": "Wikipedia, Cemented carbide article",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemented_carbide",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "itia-apps": {
      "title": "ITIA: Tungsten applications and markets",
      "id": "International Tungsten Industry Association, applications page",
      "url": "https://www.itia.info/applications-markets/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "ITIA website (cited, not reproduced)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/tungsten-carbide/"
}