{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "tool-steel-12316",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "tool-steels",
  "name": "1.2316 stainless plastic mould steel (EN 1.2316, printed name X38CrMo16)",
  "abbreviation": "1.2316 (X38CrMo16)",
  "role": "stainless plastic mould steel",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "1.2316 is a stainless, martensitic chromium-molybdenum steel for plastic moulds (EN 1.2316; the name printed by Dörrenberg and Abrams is X38CrMo16). Dörrenberg says it is usually supplied quenched and tempered at 280 to 325 HB, and Abrams gives 15.5 to 17.5 percent chromium for corrosion resistance. Aços Formosa points PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases to this grade rather than to the P-20 family.",
  "best_for": "Moulds and tools for PVC and other corrosive plastics that need a stainless, polishable face in the quenched and tempered condition (Aços Formosa; Dörrenberg; Abrams).",
  "weakest_at": "Corrosion data are qualitative: no test is printed, and the stated range is atmospheric, humid, weak acid and alkali service (Abrams). Machinability is rated only 2 on a 1 to 6 scale (Abrams).",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Iron balance; 0.33 to 0.45 C, 0.0 to 1.0 Si, 0.0 to 1.5 Mn, 0.0 to 0.03 P, 0.0 to 0.03 S, 15.5 to 17.5 Cr, 0.8 to 1.3 Mo, 0.0 to 1.0 Ni (wt%, limits as printed in the Abrams standard-values table). Abrams gives the chromium limit as 15.5 to 17.5 percent in its text. Dörrenberg's typical analysis falls inside these limits, and its figures are not recorded because they print decimal commas.",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.2316",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Header row, Material No. column (1.2316 X38CrMo16)"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X38CrMo16",
        "source": "abrams-12316",
        "where": "Standard values, Chemical designation row"
      },
      {
        "system": "Trade name",
        "code": "R65",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Header row, DE - Brand column beside the grade"
      }
    ],
    "source": "abrams-12316",
    "where": "Standard values, Chemical composition table (C, Si, Mn, P, S, Cr, Mo, Ni)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "mechanisms"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, typical at room temperature",
      "value": 7.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "typical value as printed",
        "temperature": "room temperature (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Density section, typical value as printed (the Abrams page prints www.stahlwissen.de as its source for its tables)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Density section, first sentence (7.7 g/cm3)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, approximate",
      "value": 1100,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "approximate value as printed; heat treatment and test temperature not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "N/mm2 (printed as N/mm 2)"
      },
      "method": "Tensile strength section, as printed (approx. 1100 N/mm2)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The page does not say whether the figure is for the delivery condition or a hardened state, so it is kept as an approximate value.",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Tensile strength section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 23 C",
      "value": 23.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m*K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "23 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "W/(m*K)"
      },
      "method": "Heat conductivity section, sentence and table, Value W/(m*K) at 23 C, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Heat conductivity section, sentence and table row 23.5",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 100 C",
      "value": 10.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 100 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 10.5 at 20 to 100 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 200 C",
      "value": 10.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 200 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 10.8 at 20 to 200 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 300 C",
      "value": 11.1,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 300 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 11.1 at 20 to 300 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 350 C",
      "value": 11.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 350 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 11.3 at 20 to 350 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 400 C",
      "value": 11.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 400 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 11.5 at 20 to 400 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 450 C",
      "value": 11.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 450 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 11.6 at 20 to 450 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Average coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 500 C",
      "value": 11.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 to 500 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m*K) (same number as ppm/K)"
      },
      "method": "Average thermal expansion coefficient table, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Thermal expansion coefficient table, row 11.7 at 20 to 500 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_rockwell_c",
      "label": "Working hardness, approximate, up to 48 HRC",
      "value": 30,
      "value_high": 48,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "HRC",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "approx. 30 HRC in the delivery condition, up to 48 HRC as printed (the page does not tie 48 HRC to a heat treatment)",
        "scale": "HRC"
      },
      "method": "Standard values, Working hardness line, as printed; the Working hardness section repeats approx. 30 HRC to 48 HRC on delivery",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The two Abrams statements do not agree on whether 48 HRC is a delivery or hardened value; both are kept as printed.",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Standard values, Working hardness line; 1.2316 Working hardness section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Delivery hardness, maximum",
      "value": 325,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "delivery condition, as printed (max.)",
        "scale": "HB"
      },
      "method": "Standard values, Delivery condition line, as printed: max. 325 HB",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Standard values, Delivery condition line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Specific electrical resistance at 20 C",
      "value": 0.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Ohm*mm2/m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C (as printed)",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "(Ohm*mm2)/m as printed, not converted"
      },
      "method": "Specific electrical resistance table, Value row, as printed; the page notes that electrical conductivity is the reciprocal",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Specific electrical resistance table, row 0.6 at 20 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "machinability_rating",
      "label": "Machinability rating on a 1 (low) to 6 (high) scale",
      "value": 2,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "scale": "1 (low) to 6 (high), as printed",
        "heat_treatment": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Machinability section, as printed (a rating, not a test value)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Rating scale from the datasheet; no machining test is printed.",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "1.2316 Machinability section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
        "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
        "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Hardness in the delivery condition, quenched and tempered",
      "value": 280,
      "value_high": 325,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "quenched and tempered, supplied condition (as printed)",
        "scale": "HB"
      },
      "method": "Condition of delivery row, as printed: quenched and tempered, 280 - 325 HB",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
      "where": "Condition of delivery row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Dörrenberg Edelstahl: 1.2316 (X38CrMo16) material datasheet",
        "id": "1.2316 X38CrMo16",
        "url": "https://doerrenberg.de/fileadmin/special_steel/files/pdf_en_products_neues_Design/1.2316_en.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier datasheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength in the delivery condition, converted from hardness",
      "value": 950,
      "value_high": 1100,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "quenched and tempered, delivery condition",
        "unit_in_source": "N/mm2 (printed as 950 - 1100 N/mm2)"
      },
      "method": "Converted from hardness by the datasheet using DIN EN ISO 18265 Table A.1, not a tensile test; kept as calculated",
      "status": "calculated",
      "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
      "where": "Condition of delivery row, second line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Dörrenberg Edelstahl: 1.2316 (X38CrMo16) material datasheet",
        "id": "1.2316 X38CrMo16",
        "url": "https://doerrenberg.de/fileadmin/special_steel/files/pdf_en_products_neues_Design/1.2316_en.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier datasheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Hardness after soft annealing, maximum",
      "value": 230,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "soft annealed at 760 to 800 C, cooled in the furnace",
        "scale": "HB"
      },
      "method": "Heat treatment table, Soft annealing row, as printed: max. 230 HB",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
      "where": "Heat treatment table, Soft annealing row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Dörrenberg Edelstahl: 1.2316 (X38CrMo16) material datasheet",
        "id": "1.2316 X38CrMo16",
        "url": "https://doerrenberg.de/fileadmin/special_steel/files/pdf_en_products_neues_Design/1.2316_en.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier datasheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Atmospheric, humid and slightly aggressive environments, weak acids and alkalis",
      "headline": "Abrams says a passive chromium layer gives corrosion resistance in these environments.",
      "effect": "The 1.2316 page says a passive, self-healing chromium layer gives corrosion resistance in atmospheric and slightly aggressive environments, weak acids and alkalis, and humid environments. No exposure time, concentration or test is printed. The moderate rating is an assistant judgement from this wording, not a test result.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement",
        "test": "none printed"
      },
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "General corrosion resistance section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Chloride-containing environments (pitting and crevice attack)",
      "headline": "Abrams says molybdenum improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-containing environments.",
      "effect": "No chloride level, temperature or test is printed. The rating is unknown because the page gives no number.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement",
        "test": "none printed"
      },
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "General corrosion resistance section, last sentence"
    },
    {
      "environment": "PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases during moulding",
      "headline": "Aços Formosa points these plastics to the prehardened stainless grade 1.2316.",
      "effect": "Aços Formosa describes 1.2316 as prehardened stainless steel with good corrosion resistance for PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases. It gives no corrosion test. The moderate rating is an assistant judgement.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "supplier product guidance",
        "test": "none printed"
      },
      "source": "formosa-1-2316",
      "where": "Main materials list, DIN 1.2316 row, and Best Choice list"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Corrosive plastics and polymers, and the food industry (application statement)",
      "headline": "Dörrenberg describes the grade as stainless martensitic steel with increased chromium for improved corrosion resistance.",
      "effect": "The datasheet lists tools and moulds for corrosive plastics and polymers and for the food industry. It prints no corrosion test. The moderate rating is an assistant judgement from this wording.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement",
        "test": "none printed"
      },
      "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
      "where": "Steel properties and Applications rows"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem's aggregated GHS record for elemental chromium carries the signal word Danger. It says 50% (1202 of 2404 reports) do not meet GHS criteria. Notified codes include H317 (20.7% of reports, may cause an allergic skin reaction), H319 (19.1%, causes serious eye irritation) and H334 (20.3%, may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled). Other notifications add H320, H335, H341, H371, H400 and H410. The record describes the element, not the steel.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H319",
          "H334",
          "H320",
          "H335",
          "H341",
          "H371",
          "H400",
          "H410"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-cr",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (CID 23976)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem's aggregated GHS record for elemental molybdenum says 57.4% (874 of 1523 reports) do not meet GHS criteria. Notified codes include H225 (11.6% of reports), H228 (30%, flammable solid), H361 (29.5%, suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child), H315 (skin irritation), H319 (eye irritation) and H335 (respiratory irritation). The record describes the element, not the steel.",
        "ghs": [
          "H225",
          "H228",
          "H361",
          "H315",
          "H319",
          "H335"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-mo",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (CID 23932)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem's aggregated GHS record for elemental manganese says 46.1% (1429 of 3101 reports) do not meet GHS criteria. Notified codes include H228 (flammable solid, 11.6% of reports), H319 (eye irritation, 14.8%), H360 (may damage fertility or the unborn child), H372 (damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure), H411 (toxic to aquatic life with long-lasting effects) and H412 (harmful to aquatic life with long-lasting effects). The record describes the element, not the steel.",
        "ghs": [
          "H228",
          "H319",
          "H360",
          "H372",
          "H411",
          "H412"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-mn",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (CID 23930)"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Hardness loss on heating into the soft-annealing range",
        "trigger": "Reheating to 760 to 800 C followed by furnace cooling, which is the soft-anneal cycle",
        "consequence": "Soft annealing gives at most 230 HB, against 280 to 325 HB in the delivery condition, so an unplanned reheat into that range softens the block (Dörrenberg).",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Heat treatment table, Soft annealing row"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Buy in the quenched and tempered condition at 280 to 325 HB (Dörrenberg), or at most 325 HB (Abrams).",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Condition of delivery row"
      },
      {
        "text": "Soft anneal at 760 to 800 C in the furnace with furnace cooling, which gives at most 230 HB (Dörrenberg).",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Heat treatment table, Soft annealing row"
      },
      {
        "text": "Stress relieve at 500 to 550 C in the quenched and tempered condition; in the soft-annealed condition 600 to 650 C is possible (Dörrenberg).",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Heat treatment table, Stress relief annealing row"
      },
      {
        "text": "Harden from 1020 to 1050 C, cooling in oil, pressure gas (N2), air or a hot bath, then temper following the tempering diagram (Dörrenberg; the diagram has no values in its PDF text layer and was not read).",
        "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
        "where": "Heat treatment table, Hardening row, and Tempering diagram (no text-layer values)"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Chromium at 15.5 to 17.5 percent gives a passive, self-healing chromium layer (Abrams).",
        "source": "abrams-12316",
        "where": "General corrosion resistance section"
      },
      {
        "text": "Molybdenum improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-containing environments (Abrams).",
        "source": "abrams-12316",
        "where": "General corrosion resistance section, last sentence"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Plastic moulds, extrusion tools and press moulds for corrosive plastics",
      "example": "Dörrenberg lists tools and moulds for corrosive plastics and polymers, and for the food industry; Abrams lists plastic moulds, extrusion tools and press moulds.",
      "source": "dorrenberg-1-2316",
      "where": "Applications row"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Shafts, spindles, bolts, pistons, valves and pump parts",
      "example": "Abrams lists shafts, spindles, bolts and pistons, and valves, pump rods and compressor parts, among 1.2316 applications.",
      "source": "abrams-12316",
      "where": "Applications list, 1.2316 page"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Injection and blow moulds for PVC and gas-releasing plastics",
      "example": "Aços Formosa points PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases to 1.2316, and lists the 1.2316 ESR variant for corrosive applications with demanding finish requirements.",
      "source": "formosa-1-2316",
      "where": "Main materials list, DIN 1.2316 row; Best Choice list"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Chromium",
      "abundance": "World resources are greater than 12 billion tons of shipping-grade chromite, heavily concentrated (95%) in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026). US net import reliance was 79 percent of apparent consumption in 2025e.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 17.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 13.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "share_percent": 5.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Zimbabwe",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Finland",
          "share_percent": 3.7,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts accounted for 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025 (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys (USGS 2026)."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-cr-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics; World Mine Production and Reserves (2025e; shares calculated by Space Mushroom from the printed tonnage over the 51,000 world total, gross weight); World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Molybdenum",
      "abundance": "Identified resources are about 5.4 million tons in the United States and about 20 million tons in the rest of the world, and world reserves were 17,000 thousand metric tons in 2025e (USGS 2026). Molybdenum is used principally as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron and superalloys. The United States was a net exporter, not an importer, in each year from 2021 to 2025e.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 37.3,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Chile",
          "share_percent": 16.2,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "United States",
          "share_percent": 15.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "share_percent": 15,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Mexico",
          "share_percent": 6.5,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Molybdenum is recycled as a component of catalysts, ferrous scrap and superalloy scrap; recycled material may be as much as 30% of the apparent supply (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "There is little substitution for molybdenum in steels and cast irons; potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium and vanadium in alloy steels, and tungsten in tool steels (USGS 2026)."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mo-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics (net exporter, footnote E); Events, Trends and Issues (China export controls on molybdenum powders, February 2025); World Mine Production and Reserves (2025e; shares calculated by Space Mushroom from the printed tonnage over the 260,000 world total, tons of molybdenum content); World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Dörrenberg Edelstahl: 1.2316 (X38CrMo16) material datasheet, revision 02/24",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://doerrenberg.de/fileadmin/special_steel/files/pdf_en_products_neues_Design/1.2316_en.pdf",
      "year": 2024
    },
    {
      "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values and at-a-glance page",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316"
    },
    {
      "title": "Aços Formosa: Plastic mold steels (P-20 family and stainless 1.2316)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://acosformosa.com.br/en/products/plastic-mold-steels/",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026: Molybdenum",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification"
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification"
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Manganese (CID 23930), GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No safety data sheet for the 1.2316 steel was read in this run. The hazard entries are PubChem records for the pure elements chromium, molybdenum and manganese, which do not describe the steel.",
    "The request name X36CrMo17 is not printed by any page fetched in this run. The printed EN name is X38CrMo16 (Dörrenberg header row; Abrams standard values), so X36CrMo17 is not listed in identity.designations.",
    "No AISI, UNS, ASTM or JIS code is printed for this grade on the pages read. Abrams prints 'AISI / SAE 1.2316' in its product header; that is the EN number in an AISI field, so it is not used as an AISI code.",
    "Dörrenberg prints its typical analysis, its thermal conductivity table and its thermal expansion table with decimal commas. The source check cannot match decimal commas, so those figures are not recorded as values. Their conductivity and expansion figures do not agree with the Abrams figures, and the Abrams figures are the ones recorded.",
    "Specific heat: Abrams prints 0.46 J/kg*K. That unit cannot be right for steel, so the figure is left out rather than converted.",
    "Elastic modulus, Poisson ratio, yield strength, elongation and impact values are not printed in the text of the pages read for 1.2316.",
    "Hardness: Abrams gives approx. 30 HRC in the delivery condition up to 48 HRC, and a second Abrams paragraph says 30 to 48 HRC on delivery. The 48 HRC end does not match between the two, so both are kept as printed.",
    "Tempering: the Dörrenberg tempering diagram, CCT diagram and thermal cycle diagram have no values in the PDF text layer. No tempering-hardness values were read, so no tempering temperature for a target hardness is recorded.",
    "Corrosion: no salt-spray, immersion, humidity or acid test for 1.2316 is printed in the pages read. Corrosion entries are datasheet and supplier statements; their ratings are assistant judgements from the wording.",
    "Polishability is described (Dörrenberg: good polishability; Aços Formosa: the 1.2316 ESR variant for greater cleanliness and polishability) but not measured. No surface roughness value was read. The ESR variant is not used as a value for this grade.",
    "Aços Formosa prints 30 to 34 HRC for the P-20 family, not for 1.2316. That figure is not used here.",
    "Composition: Abrams prints the limits without a unit line; its text gives the chromium limit in percent. Lower limits of 0.0 for Si, Mn, P, S and Ni are kept as printed.",
    "Supply shares are calculated by Space Mushroom from the printed USGS 2025e tonnage over the printed world totals; they are not printed percentages. Chromium mine production is in gross weight per the USGS footnote. Molybdenum production is in tons of molybdenum content.",
    "Critical-mineral status: the USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals page returned HTTP 403 to curl and was not read. The European Commission page read in this run does not name chromium, molybdenum or manganese, so no EU list status is recorded.",
    "Uses: no space, vacuum, radiation or flight use of 1.2316 was found in the pages read. The listed uses are terrestrial moulds, tools and machine parts.",
    "Failure risks: only the soft-anneal softening is printed for this grade. No welding, thick-section, fatigue or creep data were read for 1.2316.",
    "No licensed photograph or micrograph of 1.2316 was fetched, so media is empty.",
    "Web search was refused in this run because the turn's search budget was already used, so the 1.2316 sources were found by direct URL. Tried and not found: Oberste-Beulmann 1.2316 PDF (HTTP 404), Industeel DS Mold 2316 (HTTP 404), SIJ SIMOLD 2316 PDF (HTTP 404).",
    "Trade name R65 is the brand code printed in the Dörrenberg header row beside the grade; its meaning beyond that brand column is not stated."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "1.2316 (EN 1.2316, printed as X38CrMo16) is a stainless, martensitic plastic mould steel. Dörrenberg says it is usually supplied quenched and tempered at 280 to 325 HB, and Aços Formosa points PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases to this grade rather than to the P-20 family. Abrams explains the chromium content (15.5 to 17.5 percent) as the source of its corrosion resistance, and says the molybdenum helps against pitting in chloride-containing environments.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Plastic moulds and tools for corrosive plastics",
        "line": "Dörrenberg lists tools and moulds for corrosive plastics and polymers, and for the food industry. Aços Formosa points PVC and gas-releasing plastics to 1.2316."
      },
      {
        "where": "Extrusion and press tools",
        "line": "Abrams lists plastic moulds, extrusion tools, press moulds and fitting tools among 1.2316 applications."
      },
      {
        "where": "Shafts, valves and pump parts",
        "line": "Abrams also lists shafts, spindles, bolts, pistons, valves, pump rods and compressor parts."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Hardness",
        "line": "Supplied quenched and tempered at 280 to 325 HB (Dörrenberg), or at most 325 HB (Abrams). Soft annealing gives at most 230 HB (Dörrenberg).",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "Tensile strength is 950 to 1100 MPa in the delivery condition, converted from hardness per DIN EN ISO 18265 (Dörrenberg); Abrams gives approx. 1100 MPa.",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "Typical density is 7.7 g/cm3 at room temperature (Abrams).",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal",
        "line": "Thermal conductivity is 23.5 W/(m*K) at 23 C, and mean thermal expansion runs from 10.5 ppm/K (20 to 100 C) to 11.7 ppm/K (20 to 500 C) (Abrams).",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Corrosion",
        "line": "The chromium layer resists weak acids and alkalis, humid and slightly aggressive air, and molybdenum helps against pitting in chlorides (Abrams). No test is printed.",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Polish",
        "line": "Good polishability (Dörrenberg). Aços Formosa lists the 1.2316 ESR variant for greater cleanliness and polishability, which is a process variant and is not used as a value here.",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Machining",
        "line": "Machinability is rated 2 on a 1 to 6 scale (Abrams).",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "1.2316 sits with the Aços Formosa plastic-mould range. Its P-20 family (standard, high-machinability, nickel-alloyed and ESR variants) is the general mould choice, while 1.2316 is the stainless choice for PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases. Its printed numbers are a density of 7.7 g/cm3, a delivery hardness of 280 to 325 HB and a tensile strength of 950 to 1100 MPa (converted from hardness). The compare rows give its strength, hardness and density.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Hardness",
        "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Buy in the quenched and tempered condition at 280 to 325 HB (Dörrenberg), or at most 325 HB (Abrams).",
      "Soft anneal at 760 to 800 C with furnace cooling to reach at most 230 HB (Dörrenberg).",
      "Stress relieve at 500 to 550 C in the quenched and tempered condition, or at 600 to 650 C in the soft-annealed condition (Dörrenberg).",
      "Harden from 1020 to 1050 C, then temper following the Dörrenberg tempering diagram, which has no values in its text layer and was not read.",
      "Keep reheats out of the 760 to 800 C soft-anneal range unless a soft anneal is intended."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases, which Aços Formosa and Abrams both point to 1.2316.",
      "Moulds and tools that need a polished stainless face (Dörrenberg: good polishability; Aços Formosa: ESR variant for polishing).",
      "Food-industry tools, which Dörrenberg lists as an application."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Corrosion is qualitative: no test is printed, and the stated range is atmospheric, humid, weak acid and alkali service (Abrams).",
      "Reheating into 760 to 800 C softens the block to at most 230 HB (Dörrenberg).",
      "Machinability is rated 2 on a 1 to 6 scale (Abrams), so plan machining time.",
      "The name X36CrMo17 that buyers search for is not printed by any page read; check the printed EN name X38CrMo16 (see gaps)."
    ],
    "verdict": "1.2316 is a stainless, pre-hardened plastic mould steel that Aços Formosa and Abrams point to for PVC and other corrosive plastics. It is supplied at 280 to 325 HB, polishes well, and has a typical density of 7.7 g/cm3 and a thermal conductivity of 23.5 W/(m*K) at 23 C. Its corrosion data are qualitative, and no SDS, modulus or yield strength was read for the steel.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "1.2316 is an iron-based, stainless martensitic chromium-molybdenum steel. Abrams gives composition limits in wt% (its table has no unit line; the chromium limit is stated in percent in its text), and Dörrenberg prints a typical analysis inside those limits. It is usually supplied quenched and tempered at 280 to 325 HB and is hardened from 1020 to 1050 C (Dörrenberg).",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The matrix of the steel. Heat treatment changes its structure between martensite and tempered martensite.",
          "share_note": "balance (the rest)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Sets how hard the steel can become when quenched.",
          "share_percent": 0.33,
          "share_high": 0.45
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Upper limit 1.0 percent as printed by Abrams; no role is stated by the source.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Upper limit 1.5 percent as printed by Abrams; no role is stated by the source.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1.5
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Impurity, held to a maximum of 0.03 percent as printed by Abrams.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulfur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "Impurity, held to a maximum of 0.03 percent as printed by Abrams.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Gives the stainless behaviour; Abrams says 15.5 to 17.5 percent chromium makes it stainless in the classic sense.",
          "share_percent": 15.5,
          "share_high": 17.5
        },
        {
          "name": "Molybdenum",
          "symbol": "Mo",
          "role": "Improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-containing environments and adds to hardenability (Abrams).",
          "share_percent": 0.8,
          "share_high": 1.3
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Upper limit 1.0 percent as printed by Abrams; no role is stated by the source.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The only hazard records are PubChem entries for the pure elements chromium, molybdenum and manganese. No safety data sheet for the 1.2316 bar was read in this run.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Chromium",
            "line": "PubChem gives the signal word Danger for elemental chromium. About half of its reports say it does not meet GHS criteria, and H317 (allergic skin reaction) appears for 20.7 percent of reports."
          },
          {
            "label": "Molybdenum",
            "line": "PubChem lists H315 (skin irritation), H319 (eye irritation) and H335 (respiratory irritation) for elemental molybdenum, and says 57.4 percent of its reports do not meet GHS criteria."
          },
          {
            "label": "Manganese",
            "line": "PubChem lists H360 (may damage fertility or the unborn child) and H372 (organ damage on repeated exposure) for elemental manganese."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Element records only; no SDS for the steel was read"
      },
      {
        "title": "In service",
        "lead": "Abrams and Dörrenberg describe corrosion resistance without test data. Their stated range is atmospheric, humid and weak acid or alkali service, and Abrams says molybdenum helps against pitting in chlorides.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Plastics",
            "line": "Aços Formosa points PVC and plastics that release aggressive gases to 1.2316, not to the P-20 family."
          },
          {
            "label": "Reheating",
            "line": "Heating into 760 to 800 C and furnace cooling gives at most 230 HB, so an unplanned reheat softens the block (Dörrenberg)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Chlorides",
            "line": "Abrams gives no chloride level or temperature for its pitting statement."
          }
        ],
        "level": 2,
        "verdict": "Corrosion is qualitative; chloride and reheat limits matter"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heat treatment",
        "lead": "The temper sets the hardness, and the datasheet gives separate soft-anneal, stress-relief and hardening ranges.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Hardening",
            "line": "Harden from 1020 to 1050 C, with oil, pressure gas, air or a hot bath as the cooling medium (Dörrenberg)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Stress relief",
            "line": "500 to 550 C for the quenched and tempered condition; 600 to 650 C is possible in the soft-annealed condition (Dörrenberg)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Tempering",
            "line": "The Dörrenberg tempering diagram has no values in its text layer and was not read, so no hardness-by-temperature values are recorded."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Keep reheats inside the printed ranges"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-24",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 17,
    "unreachable": 1,
    "caveats": 4,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in this run. Caveats: the approximate tensile value, the 30 to 48 HRC range and the machinability rating are printed without a test condition; the 950 to 1100 MPa tensile range is calculated from hardness; Dörrenberg's decimal-comma figures and the Abrams specific heat were left out. No web search was available in this run. The USGS 2025 critical-list page returned HTTP 403."
  },
  "sources": {
    "dorrenberg-1-2316": {
      "title": "Dörrenberg Edelstahl: 1.2316 (X38CrMo16) material datasheet",
      "id": "1.2316 X38CrMo16",
      "url": "https://doerrenberg.de/fileadmin/special_steel/files/pdf_en_products_neues_Design/1.2316_en.pdf",
      "year": 2024,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier datasheet, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "abrams-12316": {
      "title": "Abrams Industries: PREMIUM 1.2316 steel, standard values (tables derived from stahlwissen.de)",
      "id": "PREMIUM 1.2316",
      "url": "https://eu.abrams-industries.com/steel/premium-12316",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "formosa-1-2316": {
      "title": "Aços Formosa: Plastic mold steels (P-20 family and stainless 1.2316)",
      "id": "DIN 1.2316",
      "url": "https://acosformosa.com.br/en/products/plastic-mold-steels/",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "supplier web page, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "usgs-cr-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026: Chromium",
      "id": "mcs2026-chromium",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mo-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026: Molybdenum",
      "id": "mcs2026-molybdenum",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "pubchem-cr": {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 23976",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-mo": {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 23932",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23932/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-mn": {
      "title": "PubChem: Manganese (CID 23930), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 23930",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23930/JSON/?heading=GHS+Classification",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/tool-steel-12316/"
}