{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "stainless-431",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "stainless-martensitic",
  "name": "Stainless steel 431",
  "abbreviation": "431 (UNS S43100, EN 1.4057)",
  "role": "high-strength shaft and valve-stem stainless",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "Type 431 (UNS S43100, EN 1.4057, X17CrNi16-2) is a martensitic chromium-nickel stainless steel with 15 to 17 percent chromium and 1.5 to 2.5 percent nickel (EN 10088-3 limits, Smiths High Performance and Team Edelstahl). Heat treated, it reaches 800 to 1000 MPa tensile strength with 12 percent elongation and good toughness. Smith Metal and Team Edelstahl list pump and propeller shafts, valve stems and pump parts as typical uses. Smiths High Performance calls it the most corrosion resistant of the martensitic grades, but it cracks in welds unless it is preheated.",
  "best_for": "High tensile and torsional strength in shafts, valve stems and pump parts that also need reasonable corrosion resistance (Smith Metal, Smiths High Performance)",
  "weakest_at": "Welding and cold forming: welds crack unless preheated, and the grade is not recommended for cold heading or bending (Smiths High Performance, Voestalpine)",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Fe balance with 15.0 to 17.0 Cr, 1.5 to 2.5 Ni, 0.12 to 0.22 C, up to 1.5 Mn, 1.0 Si, 0.04 P and 0.03 S (wt%, EN 10088-3 limits for 1.4057, as printed by Smiths High Performance and Team Edelstahl)",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "S43100",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
        "where": "Designations block of the Aircraft Materials page, UNS S43100"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4057",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Normen und Bezeichnungen table, row EN"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X17CrNi16-2",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Normen und Bezeichnungen table, row DIN"
      },
      {
        "system": "AISI",
        "code": "431",
        "source": "abrams-1-4057",
        "where": "Header block, field AISI/SAE, and the composition table heading AISI/SAE 431"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "431S29",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
        "where": "Designations block of the Aircraft Materials page, line BS 970; 431S29"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A276",
        "note": "bar",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
        "where": "Designations block of the Aircraft Materials page, line ASTM A276 / ASME SA276"
      },
      {
        "system": "AMS",
        "code": "5628",
        "note": "bars, wire and forgings, heat treated",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
        "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, heat treated row, and the designations block line AMS 5628 Bars / wire / forgings"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "SUS 431",
        "source": "swiss-dew-2018",
        "where": "Material description line on the bar page 11, Acidur 4057, 1.4057, Type 431, SUS 431"
      },
      {
        "system": "Trade name",
        "code": "Acidur 4057",
        "source": "swiss-dew-2018",
        "where": "Material description line on the bar page 11"
      }
    ],
    "source": "team-1-4057",
    "where": "Chemische Zusammensetzung table, min and max rows (C, Mn, Si, P, S, Cr, Ni), cross-checked with the Smiths High Performance chemical composition table"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "mechanisms",
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, Smiths High Performance datasheet",
      "value": 7800,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/m3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057, properties as per BS EN 10088-3",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Density",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
        "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 20 °C",
      "value": 25,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057 (X17CrNi16-2)",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "W/(m • K)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-1-4057",
      "where": "Physical properties block, Thermal conductivity row, 20°C value",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Premium Steel, steel grade 1.4057 (AISI/SAE 431)",
        "url": "https://files.abrams-industries.com/steel/en_eu/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 100 °C",
      "value": 20.2,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057",
        "temperature": "100 °C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity at 100°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
        "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "label": "Specific heat capacity at 20 °C",
      "value": 460,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/(kg·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "J/kg K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Physikalische Eigenschaften table, column Spezifische Wärmekapazität, row bei 20°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity at 20 °C",
      "value": 215,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kN/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "kN / mm²"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Mechanische Eigenschaften table, column Elastizitätsmodul, row bei 20°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity, temperature not stated",
      "value": 200,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057, properties as per BS EN 10088-3",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Modulus of Elasticity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
        "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity at 20 °C",
      "value": 0.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ohm mm2/m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4057",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "(ohm) mm²/m"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Physikalische Eigenschaften table, column Elektrischer Widerstand, row bei 20°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 100 °C",
      "value": 10,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "AISI/SAE 431 (1.4057)",
        "temperature": "20 to 100 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "10-6 m/(m·K)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet, table of thermal expansion coefficients",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-1-4057",
      "where": "Thermal expansion coefficient table, column 20-100°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Premium Steel, steel grade 1.4057 (AISI/SAE 431)",
        "url": "https://files.abrams-industries.com/steel/en_eu/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, annealed",
      "value": 862,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "annealed",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Annealed, column Tensile Strength",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, heat treated to AMS 5628",
      "value": 1379,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated to AMS 5628",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Heat Treated AMS 5628, column Tensile Strength",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, heat treated",
      "value": 850,
      "value_high": 1000,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated (recommended heat treatment, quench and tempered supply condition)",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "voest-431",
      "where": "MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (HEAT TREATED) table, column Tensile Mpa (Rm)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
        "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, QT800 at 60 to 160 mm",
      "value": 800,
      "value_high": 950,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "QT800 quench and tempered",
        "thickness": "60 to 160 mm",
        "basis": "BS EN 10088-3, 1.4057"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Ultimate Tensile Strength, footnote QT800 60-160mm",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
        "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength, heat treated",
      "value": 600,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated (recommended heat treatment)",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet, shown as a single value",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "voest-431",
      "where": "MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (HEAT TREATED) table, column Yield Strength (MPa)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
        "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Proof stress 0.2 percent, annealed",
      "value": 655,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "annealed",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Annealed, column Proof Stress 0.2%",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Proof stress 0.2 percent, heat treated to AMS 5628",
      "value": 1034,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated to AMS 5628",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Heat Treated AMS 5628, column Proof Stress 0.2%",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Proof stress, T condition, minimum",
      "value": 665,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "T condition, as printed",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "smith-metal-431",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties (T condition) table, row Proof Stress",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "431 Stainless Technical Datasheet, Smiths Metal Centres",
        "url": "https://www.smithmetal.com/pdf/stainless/431-stainless.pdf",
        "year": 2023,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Rp0.2, QT800 at 20 to 160 mm, minimum",
      "value": 620,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "QT800",
        "thickness": "20 to 160 mm, longitudinal",
        "basis": "BS EN 10088-3 table"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a supplier datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "swiss-dew-2018",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, row Rp0,2 in MPa, column 20-160 mm longitudinal",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Swiss Steel Group stainless steel bar programme (2018-0010 DEW Lagerkatalog RSH EN)",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Brochures/Stainless-Steel/2018-0010_DEW_Lagerkatalog_RSH_EN.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer catalogue (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, annealed",
      "value": 20,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "annealed",
        "gauge_length": "2 in",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Annealed, column Elongation 2 in",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, heat treated to AMS 5628",
      "value": 10,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated to AMS 5628",
        "gauge_length": "2 in",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Heat Treated AMS 5628, column Elongation 2 in",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, heat treated",
      "value": 12,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated (recommended heat treatment)",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "voest-431",
      "where": "MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (HEAT TREATED) table, column Elongation (%)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
        "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Hardness, annealed",
      "value": 260,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "annealed",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aircraftmaterials-431",
      "where": "Typical Mechanical Properties table, row Alloy 431 Annealed, column Brinell Hardness",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
        "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Hardness, delivery condition, maximum",
      "value": 331,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "delivery condition, tempered",
        "product": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Maximum value printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "abrams-1-4057",
      "where": "Physical properties block, row Hardness (delivery condition)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Abrams Premium Steel, steel grade 1.4057 (AISI/SAE 431)",
        "url": "https://files.abrams-industries.com/steel/en_eu/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Hardness, QT800 maximum",
      "value": 321,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HBW",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "QT800",
        "thickness": "20 to 160 mm"
      },
      "method": "Maximum value printed in a supplier datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "swiss-dew-2018",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, row Hardness in HBW, column 20-160 mm",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Swiss Steel Group stainless steel bar programme (2018-0010 DEW Lagerkatalog RSH EN)",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Brochures/Stainless-Steel/2018-0010_DEW_Lagerkatalog_RSH_EN.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer catalogue (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "impact_energy",
      "label": "Impact toughness, heat treated",
      "value": 25,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "heat treated",
        "test_temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a steel-grade datasheet, shown as a single value",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "voest-431",
      "where": "MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (HEAT TREATED) table, column Impact Toughness (J)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
        "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "impact_energy",
      "label": "Impact energy ISO-V, QT800 minimum",
      "value": 27,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "J",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "condition": "QT800",
        "thickness": "20 to 160 mm, longitudinal",
        "test_temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a supplier datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "swiss-dew-2018",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, row Av ISO-V in J, column 20-160 mm longitudinal",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Swiss Steel Group stainless steel bar programme (2018-0010 DEW Lagerkatalog RSH EN)",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Brochures/Stainless-Steel/2018-0010_DEW_Lagerkatalog_RSH_EN.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer catalogue (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Usable temperature, upper limit",
      "value": 400,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "usable range stated in the datasheet"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Besondere Eigenschaften row, text Von -40 bis 400 °C verwendbar",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "min_service_temp",
      "label": "Usable temperature, lower limit",
      "value": -40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "usable range stated in the datasheet"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a steel-grade datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Besondere Eigenschaften row, text Von -40 bis 400 °C verwendbar",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Salt water and marine atmosphere",
      "headline": "Considerable resistance to salt water, described as similar to Type 304.",
      "effect": "Smith Metal says the alloy offers considerable resistance to saltwater and is used widely in marine equipment, and rates its corrosion resistance as similar to Type 304. No salt-spray test result or corrosion rate is printed.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "manufacturer statement, no test conditions printed"
      },
      "source": "smith-metal-431",
      "where": "Corrosion resistance section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Nitrided surface",
      "headline": "Nitriding raises hardness and fatigue resistance but lowers corrosion resistance.",
      "effect": "Smiths High Performance says 431 has the highest corrosion resistance of all martensitic stainless steels, although resistance reduces once the material is nitrided. Nitriding increases hardness and fatigue resistance.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "manufacturer statement, no test conditions printed"
      },
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Opening text and Product Benefits list"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Carbide-sensitised zones after heat treatment or welding",
      "headline": "Chromium carbides can make the alloy prone to intergranular corrosion.",
      "effect": "Team Edelstahl says the grade is susceptible to intergranular corrosion because chromium carbides form and deplete chromium in some areas. It gives PREN 17.5 to 21.2, and says the maximum corrosion resistance is reached with a bare metallic surface.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "manufacturer statement, PREN as printed"
      },
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Korrosionsbeständigkeit row"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem aggregated GHS notifications for elemental chromium (CID 23976), not for the 431 alloy: H317 (20.7 percent of notifications), H319 (19.1 percent) and H334 (20.3 percent), signal word Danger, pictograms GHS07 and GHS08. Of 2,404 company reports, 1,202 said chromium does not meet GHS criteria.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H319",
          "H334"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-chromium",
        "where": "GHS Classification section, ECHA C&L Inventory aggregate"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Intergranular corrosion from chromium carbides",
        "trigger": "Heat treatment or welding that lets chromium carbides form along grain boundaries and deplete chromium next to them",
        "consequence": "Team Edelstahl says the grade is susceptible to intergranular corrosion, so corrosion resistance falls in the affected zones.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Korrosionsbeständigkeit row"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Cracking in welds",
        "trigger": "Welding without preheat",
        "consequence": "Smiths High Performance says welding is more complicated and susceptible to cracking unless pre-heated. Smith Metal says welding is difficult and recommends preheating.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "smiths-431",
        "where": "Opening text, paragraph on machining and welding"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Lower corrosion resistance after nitriding",
        "trigger": "Nitriding the surface for hardness or fatigue resistance",
        "consequence": "Smiths High Performance says corrosion resistance reduces once the material is nitrided.",
        "severity": "low",
        "source": "smiths-431",
        "where": "Opening text, paragraph on corrosion resistance"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Property loss from hydrogen or nitrogen gas during welding",
        "trigger": "Welding under gases that contain hydrogen or nitrogen",
        "consequence": "Team Edelstahl says such gases have a negative effect on the mechanical properties of the weld.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Schweißeignung row"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Voestalpine says the grade cannot be readily cold worked and is not recommended for cold heading and bending.",
        "source": "voest-431",
        "where": "Description paragraph"
      },
      {
        "text": "Team Edelstahl says it can be welded only with precautions, and recommends heating to 100 to 300 °C before welding and avoiding cooling below 200 °C during welding.",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Schweißeignung row"
      },
      {
        "text": "Team Edelstahl says tempering colours must be removed chemically or mechanically after welding to keep corrosion resistance in the weld.",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Schweißeignung row"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Preheat before welding, and keep the weld below 200 °C while it is made (Team Edelstahl). Smiths High Performance and Smith Metal also recommend preheat.",
        "source": "team-1-4057",
        "where": "Schweißeignung row"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Pump and propeller shafts, outboard drive shafts, valve stems and axles",
      "example": "Smith Metal lists marine systems, pump and propeller shafts, outboard motor drive shafts, valve stems, aircraft components and axles as typical applications.",
      "source": "smith-metal-431",
      "where": "Typical Applications list"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Pumps, valves, piston rods and compressor impellers",
      "example": "Team Edelstahl says the grade is often used for heavily loaded machine parts such as pumps, valves, piston rods and compressor impellers, and lists automotive, chemical and petrochemical, power plant and aerospace uses.",
      "source": "team-1-4057",
      "where": "Kurzbeschreibung paragraph and Anwendungsgebiete row"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Bolts, fasteners and bearings",
      "example": "Smiths High Performance lists bolts and fasteners, bearings, pump shafts and valve stems among motorsport applications for 431.",
      "source": "smiths-431",
      "where": "Motorsport Applications list"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Chromium",
      "abundance": "World mine production of chromite was 51,000 thousand t gross weight in 2025 (estimated). World resources are greater than 12 billion t of shipping-grade chromite, 95 percent in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 17.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 13.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "share_percent": 5.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Zimbabwe",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS says recycled chromium, contained in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts, accounted for 21 percent of the chromium total in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-chromium-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, column 2025e, world total 51,000 (gross weight); shares calculated by Space Mushroom as country value over world total; Domestic Production and Use and Recycling paragraphs"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Nickel",
      "abundance": "World mine production of nickel was an estimated 3.9 million t in 2025, and world reserves are greater than 140 million t (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, column 2025e, world total 3,900,000 t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom as country value over world total"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Stainless Steel 431 product page, Aircraft Materials (composition, typical mechanical properties, designations)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100 datasheet, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "431 Stainless Technical Datasheet, Smiths Metal Centres",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.smithmetal.com/pdf/stainless/431-stainless.pdf",
      "year": 2023
    },
    {
      "title": "Abrams Premium Steel: steel grade 1.4057 (AISI/SAE 431) datasheet",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://files.abrams-industries.com/steel/en_eu/1.4057.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Team Edelstahl: Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Swiss Steel Group stainless steel bar programme (2018-0010 DEW Lagerkatalog RSH EN), pages 10 to 11",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Brochures/Stainless-Steel/2018-0010_DEW_Lagerkatalog_RSH_EN.pdf",
      "year": 2018
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No safety data sheet for 431 itself was read. The hazard entry uses the PubChem aggregate for elemental chromium, and a search for welding-fume SDS returned only other filler metals, so welding fume exposure limits are not recorded.",
    "Density: Team Edelstahl prints 7.0 kg/dm3 at 20 °C, which conflicts with 7800 kg/m3 from Smiths High Performance. Only the Smiths value is recorded, and the conflict is not resolved.",
    "Electrical resistivity: Smiths High Performance prints 720 with the unit 'n. Ω.m'. It is not recorded because the printed unit is unusual. The Team Edelstahl value of 0.70 ohm mm2/m is recorded instead.",
    "Composition limits differ: Smiths High Performance, Team Edelstahl and Abrams give nickel 1.5 to 2.5 percent and manganese up to 1.5 percent; Swiss Steel and Smith Metal give nickel 1.25 minimum and Smith Metal gives manganese up to 1.0 percent. The EN limits are used in the recipe, and both are noted. Aircraft Materials gives chromium 15.50 to 16.50 and nickel 2 to 3 percent (its own AMS-type limits), not used.",
    "Tempering temperature conflicts: Voestalpine prints 600 to 650 °C with a one-hour minimum hold, and Team Edelstahl and Abrams print 600 to 800 °C (Team) and 950 to 1050 °C hardening only (Abrams). Both ranges are recorded in the recipe line, and no single value is used as a property.",
    "Hardness: Team Edelstahl prints a maximum of 295 HB at 20 °C without a condition, which is not recorded as a property because the condition is not stated. Swiss Steel gives a maximum of 321 HBW for QT800, and Abrams gives 331 HB for the delivery condition.",
    "Designation conflict: the Aircraft Materials page title says AMS 5682 while its tables and designations list say AMS 5628, so only AMS 5628 is recorded. The Voestalpine nearest-standards table prints X20CrNi16-2 for the EN name, which is not recorded; Team Edelstahl's X17CrNi16-2 is used instead.",
    "Tensile and yield values from manufacturers are typical or minimum values for one heat treatment each. Strength by product size and temper is not verified against a specification, and no ASTM A276 or AMS 5628 minimum table was opened.",
    "Corrosion rate, salt spray and atmospheric exposure results were not found. The ratings in the corrosion section are from manufacturer statements only.",
    "Hardness and impact are not in the canonical property list used by the import (hardness_brinell and impact_energy are short names chosen for this profile). Impact test temperatures were not printed in the sources.",
    "Cold working: Voestalpine says the grade cannot be readily worked cold, but no cold-working limit or reduction figure was printed.",
    "Supply: no critical-mineral listing for chromium or nickel was found in the USGS text opened. Chromium recycling is recorded from the USGS 2026 text, and nickel recycling was not read.",
    "Atomic oxygen, radiation, outgassing and cryogenic toughness were not looked up for this grade; Team Edelstahl gives service only down to -40 °C.",
    "Thermal expansion 20 to 400 °C (10.6 ppm/K) is printed in the Abrams table with a decimal comma, which the value check could not match, so it was removed. The 20 to 100 °C value (10.0) is kept.",
    "Aalco 431 datasheet: the Aalco page returned 404 and no Aalco 431 datasheet was found by search, so Aalco is not cited. The makeitfrom and AZoM pages were blocked or were for another material and are not used."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Type 431 is a martensitic stainless steel that combines high tensile and torsional strength with reasonable corrosion resistance and toughness. Smith Metal and Smiths High Performance name shafts, valve stems and pump parts as typical uses. Its chemistry is 15 to 17 percent chromium and 1.5 to 2.5 percent nickel, and after heat treatment it reaches 850 to 1000 MPa tensile strength (Voestalpine, Smith Metal). Welding and cold forming are its limits, and Team Edelstahl notes the chromium carbide route to intergranular corrosion.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Shafts, valve stems and axles",
        "line": "Smith Metal lists pump and propeller shafts, outboard drive shafts, valve stems and axles among typical applications."
      },
      {
        "where": "Pumps, valves and compressor parts",
        "line": "Team Edelstahl says it is often used for heavily loaded parts such as pumps, valves, piston rods and compressor impellers."
      },
      {
        "where": "Motorsport and fasteners",
        "line": "Smiths High Performance lists valve stems, bolts and fasteners, bearings and pump shafts as motorsport applications."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "Heat treated, the tensile strength is 850 to 1000 MPa with a yield strength of 600 MPa and 12 percent elongation (Voestalpine). Smiths High Performance gives 800 to 950 MPa for QT800 at 60 to 160 mm.",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "850 to 1000 MPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Toughness",
        "line": "Voestalpine gives 25 J impact toughness for the heat-treated condition, and Swiss Steel gives a minimum of 27 J ISO-V for QT800 at 20 to 160 mm.",
        "benchmark": "impact_energy",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "25 J"
      },
      {
        "label": "Weight",
        "line": "Smiths High Performance gives a density of 7800 kg/m3. Team Edelstahl prints 7.0 kg/dm3, which conflicts with it and is not used.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "7800 kg/m3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal",
        "line": "Thermal conductivity is 25 W/(m·K) at 20 °C (Abrams) and 20.2 W/(m·K) at 100 °C (Smiths High Performance).",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "25 W/(m·K)"
      },
      {
        "label": "Usable range",
        "line": "Team Edelstahl says the grade can be used from -40 °C to 400 °C.",
        "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "-40 to 400 °C"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Team Edelstahl says 1.4057 has better toughness and corrosion resistance than comparable 13 percent chromium steels, and is widely used where heavily loaded machine parts need strength. Smith Metal compares its corrosion resistance with Type 304 and Smiths High Performance says it is the most corrosion resistant of the martensitic grades. Voestalpine says it can not be readily cold worked, which limits forming compared with more ductile grades.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Tensile strength",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Preheat to 100 to 300 °C before welding, and do not let the weld cool below 200 °C while it is made (Team Edelstahl).",
      "Remove tempering colours from welds chemically or mechanically to keep corrosion resistance (Team Edelstahl).",
      "Do not cold head or bend the material, since it cannot be readily cold worked (Voestalpine).",
      "Keep welding gases free of hydrogen and nitrogen, which harm the weld properties (Team Edelstahl)."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Shafts, valve stems and pump parts that need high strength and torsional capacity (Smith Metal, Smiths High Performance).",
      "Heavily loaded machine parts, such as pumps, valves and piston rods (Team Edelstahl).",
      "Parts that will be nitrided for surface hardness, though corrosion resistance drops after nitriding (Smiths High Performance)."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Welding cracks without preheat (Smiths High Performance, Smith Metal).",
      "Carbide formation can cause intergranular corrosion (Team Edelstahl).",
      "Nitriding lowers corrosion resistance (Smiths High Performance).",
      "No salt-spray result, corrosion rate or cryogenic toughness figure was found, and service is quoted only to -40 °C (Team Edelstahl)."
    ],
    "verdict": "Type 431 is the high-strength martensitic grade for shafts, valve stems and pump parts. It reaches 850 to 1000 MPa tensile strength when heat treated and resists salt water reasonably well. Welding needs preheat, cold forming is limited, and carbides can cause intergranular corrosion. Its strength figures are manufacturer values for specific heat treatments and forms, and it has no 431 safety data sheet in this profile.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Type 431 is an iron-chromium-nickel martensitic steel, supplied as bar, plate, sheet and tube (Smith Metal). Voestalpine recommends a soft anneal with slow furnace cooling, hardening in oil or air, and tempering with at least one hour at temperature followed by air cooling. Team Edelstahl gives the same EN ranges as Smiths High Performance.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The matrix of the alloy. Quench and tempering turn it into martensite, which gives the high strength.",
          "share_note": "balance (the rest)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Forms the passive oxide film that gives corrosion resistance. Voestalpine's average analysis sits in the upper part of this range.",
          "share_percent": 15,
          "share_high": 17
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Adds toughness and corrosion resistance over 13 percent chromium steels (Team Edelstahl). Swiss Steel and Smith Metal print a minimum of 1.25 percent.",
          "share_percent": 1.5,
          "share_high": 2.5
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Gives the hardness that hardening produces. Voestalpine's average analysis is at the upper end of this range.",
          "share_percent": 0.12,
          "share_high": 0.22
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Deoxidiser held at up to 1.5 percent in the EN limits; Smith Metal prints a lower upper limit.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1.5
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Deoxidiser held at up to 1.0 percent.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Impurity held at up to 0.04 percent.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.04
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulfur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "Impurity held at up to 0.03 percent.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "No 431 safety data sheet was read. The hazard record is for elemental chromium, and it does not name the alloy.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Chromium",
            "line": "PubChem lists sensitisation codes H317 and H334 and eye irritation code H319 for elemental chromium in its aggregated notifications."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Chromium and nickel alloy, not a safety data sheet"
      },
      {
        "title": "In the environment",
        "lead": "Smith Metal calls the alloy resistant to salt water and widely used in marine equipment, and Smiths High Performance says it has the highest corrosion resistance of the martensitic grades.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Salt water",
            "line": "Smith Metal says the alloy offers considerable resistance to saltwater, similar to Type 304. No salt-spray result is printed."
          },
          {
            "label": "Nitriding",
            "line": "Smiths High Performance says nitriding raises hardness and fatigue resistance, but corrosion resistance reduces once the material is nitrided."
          }
        ],
        "level": 2,
        "verdict": "Marine use is the common case"
      },
      {
        "title": "Welding and heat",
        "lead": "Welds crack without preheat and can lose corrosion resistance through carbide formation.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Weld",
            "line": "Team Edelstahl recommends heating to 100 to 300 °C before welding and avoiding cooling below 200 °C while welding. Smith Metal also recommends preheat."
          },
          {
            "label": "Carbides",
            "line": "Team Edelstahl says chromium carbide formation depletes chromium in some areas and makes the grade prone to intergranular corrosion."
          }
        ],
        "level": 3,
        "verdict": "Preheat and avoid carbide precipitation"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-25",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 27,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 4,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-25 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. Caveats: the strength values are manufacturer typical or minimum values for different heat treatments and product forms, not a specification; the datasheets disagree on composition limits, tempering range and density; the hazard entry is the PubChem chromium record, not a 431 safety data sheet; the supply shares are calculated from the USGS printed values."
  },
  "sources": {
    "aircraftmaterials-431": {
      "title": "Stainless Steel Grade 431 (Aircraft Materials)",
      "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/alstst/431.html",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "smiths-431": {
      "title": "431 Stainless Steel Technical Datasheet, Smiths High Performance, revision 12.02.2025",
      "url": "https://www.smithshp.com/assets/pdf/stainless-steel/high-performance-stainless-steel/431-stainless-steel-english.pdf",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "voest-431": {
      "title": "AISI 431 / 1.4057 / UNS43100, voestalpine High Performance Metals Australia",
      "url": "https://www.voestalpine.com/highperformancemetals/australia/app/uploads/sites/265/2026/07/Datasheet-431-2026-v2.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "smith-metal-431": {
      "title": "431 Stainless Technical Datasheet, Smiths Metal Centres",
      "url": "https://www.smithmetal.com/pdf/stainless/431-stainless.pdf",
      "year": 2023,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "abrams-1-4057": {
      "title": "Abrams Premium Steel, steel grade 1.4057 (AISI/SAE 431)",
      "url": "https://files.abrams-industries.com/steel/en_eu/1.4057.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "team-1-4057": {
      "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4057 X17CrNi16-2",
      "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/1.4057.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "swiss-dew-2018": {
      "title": "Swiss Steel Group stainless steel bar programme (2018-0010 DEW Lagerkatalog RSH EN)",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Brochures/Stainless-Steel/2018-0010_DEW_Lagerkatalog_RSH_EN.pdf",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer catalogue (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-chromium-2026": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-nickel-2026": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "pubchem-chromium": {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), GHS classification",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/rest/pug_view/data/compound/23976/JSON",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/stainless-431/"
}