{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "stainless-416",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "stainless-martensitic",
  "name": "AISI 416 stainless steel",
  "abbreviation": "416",
  "role": "free-machining structural stainless steel",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "AISI 416 (UNS S41600, EN 1.4005, X12CrS13) is a free-machining martensitic stainless steel with 12 to 14 % chromium and a sulfur addition of at least 0.15 %. Annealed, the Rolled Alloys data sheet gives a tensile strength of 75 to 90 ksi and a yield strength of 40 to 50 ksi, and the Swiss Steel (DEW) sheet gives a specification of at most 730 MPa tensile strength for the annealed state. Quenched and tempered to QT650, the EN 10088-3 values are a yield strength of at least 450 MPa and a tensile strength of 650 to 850 MPa. The sulfur gives the grade the best machinability among stainless steels, but it also makes 416 one of the least corrosion-resistant stainless grades.\n",
  "best_for": "Shafts, axles, gears, valve and pump parts and screw-machine parts that must be cut quickly and then hardened, kept away from chloride exposure",
  "weakest_at": "Corrosion resistance. The sulfur addition lowers it below the non-free-machining grade 410, and the Aalco datasheet calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Iron base with 12.0 to 14.0 % Cr, 0.15 % C maximum, 0.15 % S minimum, Mn 1.25 % maximum, Si 1.0 % maximum, P 0.06 % maximum, Mo 0.60 % maximum; martensitic free-machining stainless steel",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "S41600",
        "source": "rolled-416-page",
        "where": "Designations list, UNS line"
      },
      {
        "system": "AISI",
        "code": "416",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Relevant current and obsolete standards table, AISI row"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4005",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Page heading 1.4005 (416) Bar"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X12CrS13",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Grade heading and Steel name column, EN 10088-3 row"
      },
      {
        "system": "ISO",
        "code": "X12CrS13",
        "source": "totalmateria-416",
        "where": "Designations list, ISO entry"
      },
      {
        "system": "SAE",
        "code": "51416",
        "source": "totalmateria-416",
        "where": "Designations list, SAE entry"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "SUS416",
        "source": "totalmateria-416",
        "where": "Designations list, JIS entry"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "416S21",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Relevant current and obsolete standards table, BS row"
      },
      {
        "system": "AFNOR",
        "code": "Z11CF13",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Relevant current and obsolete standards table, AFNOR row"
      },
      {
        "system": "SS",
        "code": "2380",
        "note": "SIS 2380, Swedish standard number",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Relevant current and obsolete standards table, SIS row"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A 314",
        "note": "specification listed for the grade",
        "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
        "where": "Specifications line, ASTM entries"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A 484",
        "note": "specification listed for the grade",
        "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
        "where": "Specifications line, ASTM entries"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A 582",
        "note": "specification listed for the grade",
        "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
        "where": "Specifications line, ASTM entries"
      },
      {
        "system": "AMS",
        "code": "5610",
        "note": "Type II",
        "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
        "where": "Specifications line, AMS entry"
      }
    ],
    "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
    "where": "Chemical Composition table of the Rolled Alloys Bulletin 416U, rows MIN and MAX; grade identity from its Specifications line (UNS S41600)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "mechanisms",
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, 1.4005 bar",
      "value": 7.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/dm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row density (kg/dm3)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, 1.4005 (EN 10088-3 bar)",
      "value": 7.75,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3:2005, bar",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Properties table, row Density",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, 416 plate",
      "value": 0.282,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "lb/in3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "product": "416 plate",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a supplier datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-416",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 416 table, row Density",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "United Performance Metals, Alloy 416 UNS S41600 plate datasheet",
        "url": "https://upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/416-stainless.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Supplier datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point, 416",
      "value": 2714,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°F",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "pressure": "not stated",
        "note_on_form": "no condition stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Physical Properties block, Melting Point line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C",
      "value": 30,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "20 °C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row thermal conductivity at 20 °C (W/m K)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, 1.4005 bar (no temperature)",
      "value": 24.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m.K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, 416 at 212 °F",
      "value": 171.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Btu·ft/ft2·hr·°F",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "212 °F",
        "condition": "annealed (values for room-temperature properties; temperature column 212 °F)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Physical Properties block, Thermal Conductivity row, column 212",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "label": "Specific heat capacity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C",
      "value": 460,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/kg K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "20 °C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row specific heat capacity at 20 °C (J/kg K)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Thermal expansion, 1.4005 bar, 20 to 100 °C",
      "value": 10.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10^-6/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "20 to 100 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "10.5 x 10-6 (K-1)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row thermal expansion, 20 to 100 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Thermal expansion, 1.4005 bar, 20 to 300 °C",
      "value": 11.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10^-6/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "20 to 300 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "11.5 x 10-6 (K-1)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row thermal expansion, 20 to 300 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Thermal expansion, 416 from 70 °F to 212 °F",
      "value": 5.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "in/in°F x 10-6",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "70 °F to 212 °F",
        "note": "coefficient measured from 70 °F to the indicated temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Physical Properties block, Coefficient of Thermal Expansion row, column 212",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Thermal expansion, 1.4005 (no temperature)",
      "value": 9.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10^-6/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Properties table, row Thermal Expansion",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity, 1.4005 bar",
      "value": 200,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Properties table, row Modulus of Elasticity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity, AISI 416 range",
      "value": 190,
      "value_high": 215,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "0 to 30 °C",
        "condition": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a materials database",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "totalmateria-416",
      "where": "Physical properties list, Modulus of Elasticity row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Totalmateria, AISI 416 stainless steels",
        "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250364",
        "kind": "database",
        "license": "Materials database page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity, 1.4005 bar at 20 °C",
      "value": 0.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Ω mm2/m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temperature": "20 °C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Physical properties table, row electrical resistivity at 20 °C (Ω mm2/m)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Maximum service temperature for scaling, continuous service",
      "value": 675,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "service": "continuous",
        "property": "scaling resistance, not a mechanical limit"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Heat Resistance section, continuous service value",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Proof stress, 1.4005 bar up to 160 mm, EN 10088-3",
      "value": 450,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "product_form": "bar up to 160 mm diameter or thickness",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3:2005",
        "temper": "not named on the page"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties section, row Proof Stress, 450 Min MPa",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, 1.4005 QT650 (minimum)",
      "value": 450,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "N/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650 (quenched and tempered, tempered 680 to 780 °C)",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3"
      },
      "method": "Specification minimum printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row yield strength Rp0.2, specification column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)",
      "value": 480,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "N/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row yield strength Rp0.2, typical column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength, 416 annealed",
      "value": 40,
      "value_high": 50,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "ksi",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "70 °F (room temperature)",
        "measure": "0.2% yield"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row 0.2% Yield Strength, column 70",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength, 416 tempered at 900 °F",
      "value": 138,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ksi",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature",
        "measure": "0.2% yield"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row 0.2% Yield Strength, column 900",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 1.4005 QT650 (specification)",
      "value": 650,
      "value_high": 850,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "N/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3"
      },
      "method": "Specification range printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile strength Rm, specification column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)",
      "value": 710,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "N/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile strength Rm, typical column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 1.4005 annealed (specification maximum)",
      "value": 730,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "N/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "annealed (heated 745 to 825 °C, furnace cooled)"
      },
      "method": "Specification maximum printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, annealed table, row tensile strength Rm, Specification column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 1.4005 bar (EN 10088-3)",
      "value": 650,
      "value_high": 850,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (416)",
        "product_form": "bar up to 160 mm",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3:2005"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a stockholder datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties section, row Tensile Strength, 650 - 850 MPa",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
        "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 416 annealed",
      "value": 75,
      "value_high": 90,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "ksi",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "70 °F (room temperature)"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Ultimate Tensile Strength, column 70",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, 416 tempered at 900 °F",
      "value": 170,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ksi",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Ultimate Tensile Strength, column 900",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation A5, 1.4005 QT650 (minimum)",
      "value": 12,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650",
        "spec": "EN 10088-3"
      },
      "method": "Specification minimum printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile elongation A5, specification column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation A5, 1.4005 QT650 (typical)",
      "value": 14,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "QT650"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, QT 650 table, row tensile elongation A5, typical column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, 416 annealed",
      "value": 15,
      "value_high": 30,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "70 °F (room temperature)"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Elongation, column 70",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, 416 tempered at 900 °F",
      "value": 18,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Elongation, column 900",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Brinell hardness, 1.4005 annealed (specification maximum)",
      "value": 220,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4005 (X12CrS13)",
        "temper": "annealed"
      },
      "method": "Specification maximum printed in a manufacturer datasheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Heat treatment and mechanical properties, annealed table, row hardness HB, Specification column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
        "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
        "year": 2007,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_brinell",
      "label": "Brinell hardness, 416 tempered at 900 °F",
      "value": 385,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "HB",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "heat treated at 900 °F, tested at room temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Hardness Brinell, column 900",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_rockwell_c",
      "label": "Hardness after hardening, 416",
      "value": 26,
      "value_high": 32,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "RC",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "hardened by heat treatment",
        "note": "Rockwell C hardness as printed in the Features list"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Features list, first bullet on hardenability",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "reduction_of_area",
      "label": "Reduction of area, 416 annealed",
      "value": 40,
      "value_high": 60,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "70 °F (room temperature)"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a corporate bulletin",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties block, row Reduction in Area, column 70",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
        "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
        "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
        "year": 2018,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Dry atmosphere, fresh water, mild alkalis and mild acids",
      "headline": "Useful resistance in mild conditions, but below the non-free-machining grades.",
      "effect": "The Aalco datasheet says 416 has useful resistance to dry atmospheres, fresh water and mild alkalis and acids, but is less resistant than the equivalent non-free-machining grades. The Rolled Alloys sheet says 416 is highly resistant to typical atmospheric conditions, and that maximum corrosion resistance comes from hardening and polishing.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statements, no test rates given"
      },
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance section (Aalco); Introduction (Rolled Alloys)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Marine or chloride exposure",
      "headline": "Not suitable for marine or chloride exposure.",
      "effect": "The Aalco datasheet calls high-sulphur free-machining grades such as 416 totally unsuitable for marine or other chloride exposure. The Upmet and Continental sheets do not describe chloride resistance.",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement"
      },
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Crevice and pitting conditions",
      "headline": "Sulfur makes crevice and pitting corrosion a specification concern.",
      "effect": "The DEW datasheet says that although 1.4005 has a nominal 13 % chromium, its corrosion resistance is compromised by the sulfur addition, and that care should be taken where crevice or pitting corrosion may occur. It calls 1.4005 probably the least corrosion-resistant of the stainless steel grades.",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement, no test data"
      },
      "source": "dew-14005",
      "where": "Corrosion section, first paragraph"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Compared with 410 and austenitic grades",
      "headline": "Lower than 410 and the austenitic grades.",
      "effect": "The Aalco datasheet says the sulphur addition lowers corrosion resistance, weldability and formability below those of the non-free-machining grade 410, and that corrosion resistance is lower than the common austenitic grades.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet comparison, no rates given"
      },
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Introduction and Corrosion Resistance section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Hardened and polished surface",
      "headline": "Best corrosion resistance is in the hardened condition with a smooth finish.",
      "effect": "The Aalco datasheet says maximum corrosion resistance is achieved in the hardened condition with a smooth surface finish. The Rolled Alloys sheet says the same, through hardening and polishing.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "datasheet statement"
      },
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Introduction paragraph"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "The GPT Industries stainless steel SDS says stainless steel is considered an article and not hazardous in its solid form. Cutting, milling, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials. The sheet is generic for stainless steel and does not name 416.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "gpt-ss-sds",
        "where": "Section 2, Classification"
      },
      {
        "text": "The same SDS lists carcinogenicity Category 1B, respiratory sensitizer Category 1, specific target organ toxicity (repeated exposure) Category 1 and toxic to reproduction Category 1B for the hazardous elements that can be emitted during processing.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "gpt-ss-sds",
        "where": "Section 2, GHS classification table"
      },
      {
        "text": "The SDS says metal fumes can form during welding, burning, melting or hot rolling, and that hexavalent chromium may result from pickling stainless steel. It gives an iron-containing welding fume exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 (ACGIH TLV, 2011).",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "gpt-ss-sds",
        "where": "Section 8 and Section 10, Hazardous decomposition products"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Weld cracking and loss of properties",
        "trigger": "Welding 416 without the annealing or stress relief that the datasheets call for",
        "consequence": "The Aalco datasheet says 416 has poor weldability and needs a low-hydrogen 410 electrode, preheat to 200 to 300 °C, and an immediate anneal or stress relief at 650 to 675 °C. The Rolled Alloys sheet says free-machining grades are usually not welded and must be annealed after welding at about 1450 °F.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Weldability section; Rolled Alloys bulletin Introduction"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Cracking under cold deformation",
        "trigger": "Severe cold forming",
        "consequence": "The Aalco datasheet says cold working is suitable only for minor deformation and that severe deformation will result in cracking.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Cold Working section"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Embrittlement in the 475 °C range",
        "trigger": "Processing or service between 425 and 525 °C",
        "consequence": "The DEW datasheet says 475 embrittlement occurs in this range, and that processing or service there should be avoided or minimised.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Elevated temperature properties section"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Loss of strength by over-tempering",
        "trigger": "Service or heating above the relevant tempering temperature",
        "consequence": "The Aalco datasheet says the grade should not be used above its tempering temperature if the mechanical properties must be kept, and that its useful range is limited by low ductility at sub-zero temperatures and loss of strength from over-tempering at elevated temperatures.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Heat Resistance and Introduction sections"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Corrosion from chlorides, sulfur-induced pitting and crevices",
        "trigger": "Marine, chloride or crevice conditions",
        "consequence": "The Aalco datasheet calls high-sulphur grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure, and the DEW datasheet warns about pitting and crevice corrosion.",
        "severity": "critical",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Corrosion section"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "Sulfur is added on purpose for machinability, forming manganese sulfide inclusions that act as chip breakers. The same sulfur lowers corrosion resistance, weldability and formability, according to the Aalco datasheet.",
        "affects": "Corrosion resistance, weld quality and forming",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Introduction section"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Heat treat to the required temper: the DEW datasheet gives hardening at 950 to 1000 °C with air or oil quench and QT650 tempering at 680 to 780 °C. The Aalco datasheet gives hardening at 925 to 1010 °C with an oil quench and full annealing at 815 to 900 °C.",
        "source": "dew-14005",
        "where": "Heat treatment section; Aalco heat treatment section"
      },
      {
        "text": "The Totalmateria page gives annealing at 816 to 899 °C with a furnace cool to 593 °C, and a subcritical anneal at 649 to 788 °C with air cooling.",
        "source": "totalmateria-416",
        "where": "Heat treatment entries"
      },
      {
        "text": "Wear dust and fume protection when machining, grinding or welding. The GPT SDS says these processes can emit hazardous material even though the solid is not hazardous.",
        "source": "gpt-ss-sds",
        "where": "Section 2 and Section 8"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "The Aalco datasheet says best machinability is in the sub-critical annealed condition, which keeps machining cost down before the final hardening and tempering.",
        "source": "aalco-416",
        "where": "Machinability section"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Axles, shafts and gears",
      "example": "The Rolled Alloys sheet lists axles, shafts and gears among the typical applications of 416. The DEW datasheet calls 1.4005 a special grade for shaft material.",
      "source": "rolled-bulletin-416",
      "where": "Applications list; DEW datasheet special grade for particular use"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Automatic screw-machine parts and pump and valve components",
      "example": "The Rolled Alloys sheet lists automatic screw-machine parts and pump and valve components. The Aalco datasheet lists valve parts, pump shafts, automatic screw-machined parts, motor shafts and gears.",
      "source": "aalco-416",
      "where": "Typical applications list"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Fasteners, bolts, nuts and studs",
      "example": "The Upmet sheet lists fasteners and fittings. The Aalco datasheet lists bolts, nuts and studs among typical applications.",
      "source": "upmet-416",
      "where": "Industry Applications list"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Chromium (12 to 14 % of the alloy)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 17.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 13.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "share_percent": 5.9,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: recycled chromium, contained in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts, accounted for 21 % of 2025 apparent consumption. The United States imported 79 % of its apparent consumption (2025e).",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-chromium",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e column, world total 51,000 thousand t (gross weight, Space Mushroom calculated the shares from the country values 23,000; 9,000; 7,000; 3,000); Recycling paragraph; Salient Statistics, net import reliance row; Substitutes paragraph"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Swiss Steel (Deutsche Edelstahlwerke) datasheet 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Aalco datasheet, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, EN 10088-3",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx"
    },
    {
      "title": "Rolled Alloys Bulletin 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet (2018)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
      "year": 2018
    },
    {
      "title": "Upmet datasheet, Alloy 416 UNS S41600 plate",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/416-stainless.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "GPT Industries stainless steel safety data sheet",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://www.gptindustries.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Stainless-Steel-Safety-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Totalmateria, AISI 416 stainless steels",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250364"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Electrical conductivity (% IACS or MS/m) of 416 was not found. Only the DEW electrical resistivity row (0.60 Ω mm2/m at 20 °C) is recorded. Rolled Alloys prints resistivity in a unit that is unclear in the PDF text ('micro Hm•in'), so it was left out.",
    "Hardness (Brinell, Rockwell C), reduction of area and Rockwell hardness are not in the property-canon file. They use the snake_case names hardness_brinell, hardness_rockwell_c and reduction_of_area.",
    "Hardness at room temperature in the annealed state from Rolled Alloys is shown as a dash (no value); the DEW annealed hardness is a maximum specification (220 HB), so no room-temperature annealed Brinell minimum is entered.",
    "The Totalmateria Brinell minimum of 223 HB and the tensile range of 485 to 1210 MPa have no printed condition, so they were left out.",
    "The Totalmateria yield and elongation entries and the Upmet hardness value B82 have no printed condition or unit, so they were left out. The Upmet electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity values have no printed unit, so they were left out.",
    "Continental Steel and the Atlas Steels page were read for composition and corrosion wording only. The Atlas Steels datasheet could not be read (compressed PDF), so its values were not used.",
    "No Carpenter or ATI Type 416 datasheet was found. The CarTech and Carpenter 416 variants (Project 70, Project 70+, 416BQ, No. 5 BQ) are other grades or variants and were left out of designations.",
    "The 416 SDS entry is a generic stainless steel SDS from GPT Industries that does not name 416. No 416-specific SDS was found.",
    "Welding fume composition for 416 and machining fume exposure limits were not found.",
    "No cryogenic (below 0 °C) tensile or toughness numbers were found, only the Aalco statement that ductility is lost at sub-zero temperatures.",
    "Radiation, outgassing, atomic-oxygen and cold-welding results for 416 were not searched; no flight data for this grade were looked up.",
    "Critical-mineral listing status for chromium was not printed in the MCS 2026 chromium text that was read, so critical_lists is empty.",
    "Abundance of chromium in the crust and the share of chromium in lunar or Martian regolith were not looked up.",
    "The Wikipedia stainless steel article was fetched for context, but it does not mention 416 and is not cited for any value."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "AISI 416 is the free-machining version of 12 % chromium martensitic stainless steel. Sulfur added to the 416 chemistry lets it be machined at high speed on automatic lathes, while it can still be hardened by heat treatment. The DEW datasheet describes it as the shaft-material grade for automated machining. The price of that machinability is corrosion resistance: Aalco says the sulfur lowers corrosion resistance below the non-free-machining grade 410.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Shafts, axles and gears",
        "line": "The Rolled Alloys sheet lists axles, shafts and gears as typical uses. The DEW datasheet calls 1.4005 a special grade for shaft material."
      },
      {
        "where": "Screw-machine and pump or valve parts",
        "line": "Automatic screw-machine parts, pump components and valve parts are listed by Rolled Alloys and Aalco."
      },
      {
        "where": "Fasteners",
        "line": "Bolts, nuts and studs are listed by Aalco. Upmet lists fasteners and fittings."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Machine fast",
        "line": "Aalco says grade 416 has the highest machinability of any stainless steel, at about 85 % of that of a free-machining carbon steel. Upmet gives the same figure.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "about 85 % of free-machining carbon steel"
      },
      {
        "label": "Harden",
        "line": "The Rolled Alloys sheet says 416 can be hardened by heat treatment to 26 to 32 RC.",
        "benchmark": "hardness_rockwell_c",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "26 to 32 RC"
      },
      {
        "label": "Carry load when quenched and tempered",
        "line": "In the QT650 condition, the EN 10088-3 values are a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa and a tensile strength of 650 to 850 MPa, with a minimum A5 of 12 %.",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "at least 450 MPa yield, 650 to 850 MPa tensile"
      },
      {
        "label": "Weight",
        "line": "The DEW datasheet gives a density of 7.7 kg/dm3. Aalco gives 7.75 g/cm3 for the same grade.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "7.7 kg/dm3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Heat",
        "line": "The DEW datasheet gives a thermal conductivity of 30 W/m K at 20 °C. Aalco gives 24.9 W/m.K without a temperature.",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "30 W/m K at 20 °C"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Against the non-free-machining grade 410, Aalco says 416 has lower corrosion resistance, weldability and formability because of its sulfur. Against the austenitic grades, Aalco says corrosion resistance is lower. This profile holds no 410 or austenitic values, so the comparison rests on the statements in the datasheets.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal expansion",
        "benchmark": "cte",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Specify the temper, because annealed, QT650 and hardened grades differ by a wide margin in strength.",
      "Avoid chloride exposure. Aalco calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride service.",
      "Weld only with a plan for annealing or stress relief afterwards, as Aalco and DEW both advise."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Shafts, axles and gears that are machined from bar.",
      "Automatic screw-machine parts, where machinability is the main requirement.",
      "Parts that are hardened and tempered, when the service environment is dry."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Corrosion: the sulfur addition lowers corrosion resistance below grade 410 (Aalco, DEW).",
      "Welding is poor and needs post-weld annealing or stress relief (Aalco, Rolled Alloys).",
      "The 475 range (425 to 525 °C) should be avoided (DEW).",
      "No cryogenic or radiation numbers were found for this grade."
    ],
    "verdict": "AISI 416 is the free-machining stainless steel. It machines well and hardens to 26 to 32 RC, but the sulfur that makes it machinable makes it one of the least corrosion-resistant stainless grades. It is a shaft and screw-machine grade for dry service, not a marine or welded-structure grade.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "AISI 416 is an iron-chromium steel with 12 to 14 % chromium, carbon up to 0.15 %, and a deliberate sulfur addition of at least 0.15 %. The sulfur is added for machinability (Rolled Alloys, Aalco). The Rolled Alloys sheet gives the composition as a minimum and maximum table, with iron as the balance. The steel is heat treated after forming: full or sub-critical annealing, then hardening and tempering (DEW, Aalco).",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "The stainless element. It forms the passive film that gives stainless steel its corrosion resistance, and it sets the martensitic structure, which lets the grade be hardened."
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet."
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulfur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "The free-machining addition. It forms manganese sulfide inclusions that act as chip breakers, and it lowers corrosion resistance and weldability."
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet."
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet."
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet. Aalco describes phosphorus as an addition for machinability."
        },
        {
          "name": "Molybdenum",
          "symbol": "Mo",
          "role": "Limit set in the composition table of the Rolled Alloys sheet."
        },
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The base metal."
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The solid steel is an article under the GPT SDS, but cutting, grinding, melting and welding give off fume and dust.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Solid form",
            "line": "The GPT Industries SDS calls stainless steel an article that is not hazardous in its solid form. The sheet is generic and does not name 416."
          },
          {
            "label": "Processing",
            "line": "Cutting, milling, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials. The SDS lists carcinogenicity Category 1B and respiratory sensitizer Category 1 for the emitted elements, and it says fumes and dust should be controlled."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Hazard comes from processing"
      },
      {
        "title": "If it fails",
        "lead": "The failure routes in the sources are weld cracking, sulfur-driven corrosion, and 475 embrittlement.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Welding",
            "line": "Aalco says 416 has poor weldability and needs annealing or stress relief after any weld. Rolled Alloys says free-machining grades are usually not welded."
          },
          {
            "label": "Chlorides",
            "line": "Aalco calls high-sulfur free-machining grades totally unsuitable for marine or chloride exposure."
          },
          {
            "label": "475 range",
            "line": "The DEW datasheet says processing or service between 425 and 525 °C should be avoided because of 475 embrittlement."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Specify the temper",
            "line": "Strength depends on temper. Annealed the DEW datasheet gives a maximum of 730 MPa tensile strength; quenched and tempered to QT650 it gives 650 to 850 MPa."
          },
          {
            "label": "Keep it dry",
            "line": "Keep parts away from chlorides, and use the hardened and polished condition where corrosion matters most (Aalco, Rolled Alloys)."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-25",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 35,
    "unreachable": 3,
    "caveats": 6,
    "note": "Values read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-25 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry (PDFs extracted with pdftotext; HTML pages read through the fetch tool). Unreachable or unreadable: the Atlas Steels datasheet (compressed PDF), the Carpenter datasheet (not found), and a 403 on the makeitfrom 416 pages. Caveats: most strength values are datasheet minimums or ranges for one or two tempers, the Rolled Alloys values are in ksi, the USGS supply shares are calculated from printed country values, the GPT SDS is generic stainless steel and does not name 416, and the corrosion statements are qualitative."
  },
  "sources": {
    "dew-14005": {
      "title": "Deutsche Edelstahlwerke (Swiss Steel Group) datasheet, 1.4005 X12CrS13, revision 4005-1",
      "url": "https://swisssteel-group.com/content-media/documents/Data-Sheets/Stainless-Steel/1.4005_en.pdf",
      "year": 2007,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "aalco-416": {
      "title": "Aalco, Stainless Steel 1.4005 (416) Bar, datasheet (EN 10088-3)",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14005-416-Bar_108.ashx",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "rolled-bulletin-416": {
      "title": "Rolled Alloys, Bulletin No. 416U, 416 Stainless data sheet",
      "id": "Bulletin No. 416U, 03/18",
      "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/wp-content/uploads/416_stainless-steel-data-sheet-rolled-alloys.pdf",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Manufacturer datasheet, copyright Rolled Alloys (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "rolled-416-page": {
      "title": "Rolled Alloys, Stainless 416 product page",
      "url": "https://www.rolledalloys.ca/products/stainless-steel/stainless-416/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "continental-416": {
      "title": "Continental Steel, Alloy 416 (Type 416) grade page",
      "url": "https://continentalsteel.com/stainless-steel/grades/alloy-416/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "totalmateria-416": {
      "title": "Totalmateria, AISI 416 stainless steels",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1250364",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "Materials database page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "upmet-416": {
      "title": "United Performance Metals, Alloy 416 UNS S41600 plate datasheet",
      "url": "https://upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/416-stainless.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Supplier datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "gpt-ss-sds": {
      "title": "GPT Industries, Safety Data Sheet, Stainless Steel (generic, all grades)",
      "url": "https://www.gptindustries.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Stainless-Steel-Safety-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-chromium": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Chromium",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "Public domain (USGS)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/stainless-416/"
}