{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "stainless-316l",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "stainless-austenitic",
  "name": "Stainless steel 316L",
  "abbreviation": "316L (UNS S31603)",
  "role": "corrosion-resistant structural alloy",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "Type 316L is the extra-low-carbon form of 316, an austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel with 2 to 3 percent molybdenum added. The molybdenum improves resistance to chloride pitting, and the carbon limit of 0.030 percent maximum limits chromium carbide after welding. Datasheets give a minimum tensile strength of 485 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 170 MPa for sheet, plate and strip, and a density of 7.99 to 8.03 g/cm3. Its uses cited here are marine parts, aerospace structures and vacuum hardware. Its main limits are sensitization after slow cooling through 450 to 900 C and pitting in seawater.\n",
  "best_for": "Welded parts in chloride or marine service, and vacuum hardware that is vacuum-fired",
  "weakest_at": "Long holds near 650 C form sigma phase, and seawater service needs a pitting resistance equivalent number greater than 40 (Wikipedia)",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Fe balance; 16.0 to 18.0 Cr, 10.0 to 14.0 Ni, 2.00 to 3.00 Mo, max 0.030 C, max 2.00 Mn, max 0.75 Si, max 0.045 P, max 0.030 S, max 0.10 N (wt%)",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "S31603",
        "source": "cmc-316l",
        "where": "Title and header of the Combined Metals data sheet (Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603)"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4404",
        "source": "outokumpu-quarto",
        "where": "Supra 316L/4404 entry, 'EN: 1.4404' with 'ASTM type: TYPE 316L / UNS S31603'"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4435",
        "source": "alleima-list",
        "where": "EN steel no. column, Alleima 3R60 row (S31603, 316L, 1.4435); Outokumpu Supra 316L/4435 also prints 'EN: 1.4435'"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X2CrNiMo17-12-2",
        "source": "alloys-intl-316l",
        "where": "316L entry, W.Nr 1.4404 followed by X2CrNiMo17-12-2"
      },
      {
        "system": "DIN",
        "code": "X2CrNiMo 17 13 2",
        "source": "totalmateria-en-1-4404",
        "where": "EN 1.4404 international equivalents, row with standard DIN (free view, 15 of 1066 rows)"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "SUS316L",
        "source": "totalmateria-astm-a240-316l",
        "where": "ASTM A 240 Type 316L international equivalents, row SUS316L with standard JIS (free view, 15 of 1059 rows)"
      },
      {
        "system": "ISO",
        "code": "X2CrNiMo17-12-2",
        "source": "totalmateria-en-1-4404",
        "where": "EN 1.4404 international equivalents, last row, standard ISO (free view)"
      },
      {
        "system": "AISI",
        "code": "316L",
        "source": "icast-astm-a240",
        "where": "ICAST ASTM A240 UNS S31603 data sheet, cross reference table, row 316L with standard AISI"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A240",
        "source": "cmc-316l",
        "where": "Applicable Specifications line of the Combined Metals 316L data sheet"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A276",
        "source": "carpenter-316l",
        "where": "Applicable Specifications list on the Carpenter 316L page"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A182",
        "source": "carpenter-316l",
        "where": "Applicable Specifications list on the Carpenter 316L page (the F316L form is not printed under ASTM)"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A312 TP316L",
        "source": "totalmateria-astm-a312-tp316l",
        "where": "Page title 'ASTM A 312 TP316L' with standard A312/A312M: 2025 (free view)"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASME",
        "code": "SA-182 F 316L",
        "source": "totalmateria-astm-a240-316l",
        "where": "ASTM A 240 Type 316L international equivalents, row SA-182 F 316L with standard ASME (free view)"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "316S11",
        "note": "nearest equivalent",
        "source": "aalco-316l",
        "where": "Aalco 1.4404 (316L) sheet and plate datasheet, same 'may not be a direct equivalent' list. Totalmateria (standard B.S.) and ICAST print 316 S 11 without the hedge."
      }
    ],
    "source": "cmc-316l",
    "where": "Nominal Composition table of the Combined Metals data sheet (REV 2024 01 11); the UPMET 316/316L composition table gives the same limits"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 8.03,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "density row, shown for plate, sheet and strip",
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "form": "plate, sheet, strip"
      },
      "method": "Physical properties row of the ATI table, value in g/cm3 as printed (the 0.29 lb/in3 entry is the imperial value)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316l",
      "where": "Density row of the ATI 316L table",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
        "id": "ATI product page, 316L",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "ATI web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 8.027,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "physical properties table, no temperature stated"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, printed as 0.29 lb/in3 (8.027 g/cm3)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Density row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 7.99,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C (printed as At 20oC)",
        "basis": "Physical Properties table, metric column"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, metric column as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Density row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 193,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C (printed as At 20oC)",
        "loading": "tension",
        "unit_in_source": "193 x 10^3 MPa"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, Modulus of Elasticity row, printed as 193 x 10 MPa in tension with the exponent garbled in the PDF text; 193 x 10^3 MPa equals 193 GPa",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Modulus of Elasticity (E) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 200,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "loading": "tension",
        "basis": "no temperature stated",
        "unit_in_source": "29 x 10^6 psi"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, Modulus of Elasticity in Tension row, GPa value as printed in brackets",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Modulus of Elasticity in Tension row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "shear_modulus",
      "value": 82,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "no temperature stated",
        "unit_in_source": "11.9 x 10^6 psi"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, Modulus of Shear row, GPa value as printed in brackets",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Modulus of Shear row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "value": 1390,
      "value_high": 1440,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "melting range as printed",
        "unit_in_source": "2540 to 2630 F"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, Melting Range row, range printed in C in brackets; minimum and maximum as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Melting Range row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "value": 450,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/kg °K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C (68 F)"
      },
      "method": "Specific Heat table, value at 20 C as printed in J/kg K",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Specific Heat row at 20 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 14.6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "20 to 100 C (68 to 212 F)"
      },
      "method": "Thermal Conductivity table, value in W/m K as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, Thermal Conductivity row (20 to 100 C)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 16.2,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "100 C (printed as 100oC)"
      },
      "method": "Physical Properties table, metric value at 100 C as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Thermal Conductivity row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 16.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "10-6 cm/cm/°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "20 to 100 C (68 to 212 F)",
        "basis": "mean coefficient over the range"
      },
      "method": "Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion table, mean value for 20 to 100 C printed as 16.5 x 10^-6 cm/cm/C",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties of 316/316L table, linear CTE row for 20 to 100 C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 16,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "μm/m·°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "0 to 100 C (printed as 0-100oC)"
      },
      "method": "Coefficient of Expansion row, metric value as printed in μm/m-oC",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Coefficient of Expansion row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "value": 74,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "μΩ·cm",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C (printed as At 20oC)"
      },
      "method": "Electrical Resistivity row, metric value as printed in μ ohm.cm",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Electrical Resistivity row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 485,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet, strip",
        "basis": "minimum value as printed (ASTM A240 per the page)",
        "temper": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, tensile strength row, minimum as printed (70 ksi min, 485 min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, Tensile Strength row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
        "id": "ATI product page, 316L",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "ATI web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 485,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Type 316L (S31603) column",
        "basis": "table value, minimum or typical not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "70,000 psi"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Ultimate Tensile Strength row, MPa value in the 316L column",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Ultimate Tensile Strength row, 316L column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "value": 558,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "basis": "Annealed (Min) row of the typical room temperature table",
        "unit_in_source": "81 ksi"
      },
      "method": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, Annealed (Min) row, MPa as printed; the data sheet notes the values are based on ASTM A240",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, Annealed (Min) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 170,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet, strip",
        "basis": "minimum value as printed; offset not stated on this page",
        "temper": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, yield strength row, minimum as printed (25 ksi min, 170 min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, Yield Strength row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
        "id": "ATI product page, 316L",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "ATI web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 170,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Type 316L (S31603) column",
        "offset": "0.2%",
        "basis": "table value, minimum or typical not stated",
        "temper": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "25,000 psi"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Yield Strength 0.2% Offset row, MPa value in the 316L column",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Yield Strength 0.2% Offset row, 316L column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "value": 290,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "offset": "0.2%",
        "basis": "Annealed (Min) row of the typical room temperature table",
        "unit_in_source": "42 ksi"
      },
      "method": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, 0.2% YS column, Annealed (Min) row, MPa as printed; the same row is labelled typical in the header note",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, 0.2% YS column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "plate, sheet, strip",
        "basis": "minimum as printed",
        "gauge_length": "not stated on this page",
        "temper": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical properties table, elongation row, as printed (40% min)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "ati-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical properties table, Elongation row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
        "id": "ATI product page, 316L",
        "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "ATI web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Type 316L (S31603) column",
        "gauge_length": "2 in or 51 mm",
        "basis": "table value, minimum or typical not stated",
        "temper": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Percent Elongation row, 316L column",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties of 316/316L table, Percent Elongation row, 316L column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
        "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
        "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "value": 50,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "annealed",
        "gauge_length": "2 in (50.8 mm)",
        "basis": "Annealed (Min) row of the typical room temperature table"
      },
      "method": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, Elongation column, Annealed (Min) row, as printed",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, Elongation row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
        "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
        "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Chloride-bearing water and submerged seawater",
      "headline": "Chloride ions cause pitting and crevice corrosion in susceptible stainless steels; for submerged seawater a pitting resistance equivalent number greater than 40 is typically specified.",
      "effect": "Wikipedia says 316 and 316L, although used commonly in marine applications, are not suitable for condenser tubes in seawater because they are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion. It calls 316L the preferred steel for marine environments because of its greater resistance to pitting corrosion than most other grades of steel without molybdenum.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "solution": "chloride, seawater",
        "criterion": "pitting resistance equivalent number greater than 40 for submerged service (Wikipedia)"
      },
      "source": "wiki-316",
      "where": "Marine grade stainless article: Suitability for marine use, and the introduction"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Sulfuric, hydrochloric, acetic, formic and tartaric acids; acid sulfates and alkaline chlorides",
      "headline": "Combined Metals says corrosion resistance is improved against these acids and salts, and that molybdenum improves resistance to chloride pitting.",
      "effect": "The data sheet says the molybdenum addition increases general corrosion resistance and improves resistance to pitting from chloride ion solutions. UPMET says the molybdenum-bearing 316 family is more resistant to general corrosion and pitting and crevice corrosion than Type 304. No corrosion rate or test result for 316L was read in this run.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "qualitative datasheet statement, no test conditions given"
      },
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Introduction paragraph of the Combined Metals data sheet"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Heating or slow cooling through 450 to 900 C, as in a weld heat-affected zone",
      "headline": "Chromium carbide forms at grain boundaries in this range; 316L limits carbon to 0.030 percent maximum to reduce it.",
      "effect": "Thermal Processing says austenitic stainless steels become sensitized in the 450 to 900 C range, with chromium carbide precipitating at grain boundaries, and sensitization occurs when carbon is above about 0.02 percent. The L designation controls carbon to below 0.030 percent to improve weldability and limit chromium carbide. Deliberate sensitization is done by holding at 650 C for one to two hours, and testing follows ASTM A262.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "450 to 900 C",
        "carbon_threshold": "above about 0.02 percent",
        "carbon_limit_L": "below 0.030 percent",
        "test": "ASTM A262, deliberate 650 C hold for 1 to 2 h"
      },
      "source": "thermal-processing",
      "where": "Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels; Introduction (L grades); Testing for Sensitization"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Long isothermal holds at 650 C",
      "headline": "Sigma phase forms at grain boundaries after long holds; the study saw it after 1000 h at 650 C.",
      "effect": "A study of AISI 316L (0% cold work, and 40% cold work followed by annealing) found M23C6 carbide, chi and sigma phases precipitated at grain boundaries, with sigma in the 650 C for 1000 h condition. The authors say sigma kinetics are very slow, so it can take hundreds to thousands of hours to form, and that precipitation of carbides and sigma, chi and Laves phases causes sensitisation of the steel.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "650 C",
        "time": "100, 300 and 1000 h annealing series",
        "material_condition": "0% cold work, and 40% cold work then annealing"
      },
      "source": "pmc-sigma-316l",
      "where": "Results and discussion (650 C annealing series, sigma phase); Introduction (sigma kinetics)"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem aggregated GHS for elemental nickel (CID 935, signal Danger): H317 May cause an allergic skin reaction; H351 Suspected of causing cancer; H372 Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. PubChem reports that 0.1 percent (5 of 4,778) of company reports say it does not meet GHS criteria. The data cover the element, not the alloy.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H351",
          "H372"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-nickel",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (aggregated)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem aggregated GHS for elemental chromium (CID 23976, signal Danger): H317 (20.7 percent of notifications) May cause an allergic skin reaction; H319 (19.1 percent) Causes serious eye irritation; H334 (20.3 percent) May cause allergy or asthma symptoms if inhaled. Half of 2,404 reports say it does not meet GHS criteria.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H319",
          "H334"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-chromium",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (aggregated)"
      },
      {
        "text": "PubChem notifications for elemental molybdenum (CID 23932) are mixed: H228 (30 percent) Flammable solid and H361 (29.5 percent) Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child for one group, and H315, H319 and H335 (skin, eye and respiratory irritation) for another. 57.4 percent of 1,523 reports say it does not meet GHS criteria.",
        "ghs": [
          "H228",
          "H361",
          "H315",
          "H319",
          "H335"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-molybdenum",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (aggregated and per-notification entries)"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Intergranular (sensitization) corrosion after welding or slow cooling",
        "trigger": "Slow cooling or holding through 450 to 900 C, as in a weld heat-affected zone",
        "consequence": "Chromium carbide at grain boundaries leaves the boundary open to attack. The 0.030 percent carbon limit makes this much less likely than in the higher-carbon 316.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "thermal-processing",
        "where": "Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Pitting and crevice corrosion in seawater or chloride service",
        "trigger": "Submerged seawater or chloride-bearing water where the pitting resistance equivalent number is not above 40",
        "consequence": "316 and 316L are not suitable for seawater condenser tubes because they are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion (Wikipedia).",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "wiki-316",
        "where": "Marine grade stainless article: Suitability for marine use"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Sigma phase precipitation after long holds near 650 C",
        "trigger": "Hundreds to thousands of hours at 650 C, as in long service or slow cooling through the range",
        "consequence": "The study reports that carbides and sigma, chi and Laves phases precipitate and cause sensitisation of the steel. The datasheets read here do not give a service temperature limit for this.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "pmc-sigma-316l",
        "where": "Results and discussion; Introduction"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Specify 316L, not 316, for welded parts in corrosive service. UPMET lists 316 with up to 0.08 percent carbon and 316L with a 0.030 percent maximum.",
        "source": "upmet-316l",
        "where": "Chemical Composition tables, 316/316L"
      },
      {
        "text": "Avoid holding 316L between 450 and 900 C during fabrication or service, because chromium carbide and sigma phase form in that range.",
        "source": "thermal-processing",
        "where": "Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels"
      },
      {
        "text": "The datasheets give ASTM A240 minimums for plate, sheet and strip, and separate annealed typical values. Check the mill certificate for the form and temper being bought.",
        "source": "cmc-316l",
        "where": "Typical Room Temperature Mechanical Properties table, note"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "For vacuum service, vacuum-fire the parts at about 950 C for 24 hours under vacuum. In NIST's seven-chamber comparison, unfired 304L, 316L and 316LN chambers gave hydrogen outgassing of 4.0 to 8.0 x 10^-11 Pa L/s/cm2, while the vacuum-fired 316L-XHV chamber gave below 1 x 10^-11.",
        "source": "nist-vacuum-2020",
        "where": "Abstract; Results (hydrogen outgassing); chamber table (316L-XHV, vacuum-fired 950 C, 24 hours or more)"
      },
      {
        "text": "For submerged seawater service, a pitting resistance equivalent number greater than 40 is typically specified as the minimum (Wikipedia).",
        "source": "wiki-316",
        "where": "Marine grade stainless article: Suitability for marine use"
      },
      {
        "text": "Use the low-carbon 316L rather than 316 wherever the part will be welded, so that carbide precipitation at the weld is limited.",
        "source": "cmc-316l",
        "where": "Opening paragraph (316L is an extra-low carbon version of Type 316 that minimizes harmful carbide precipitation due to welding)"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Aerospace structures",
      "example": "UPMET lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L sheet, coil and bar. No flight or space test result is given on the datasheet.",
      "source": "upmet-316l",
      "where": "Industry Applications list, 316/316L datasheet"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Parts exposed to marine atmospheres",
      "example": "Combined Metals lists parts exposed to marine atmospheres among the industries supplied for 316L, alongside exhaust manifolds, heat exchangers, jet engine parts and pharmaceutical equipment.",
      "source": "cmc-316l",
      "where": "Industries supplied paragraph, opening of the Combined Metals data sheet"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Ultra-high-vacuum chamber walls (laboratory)",
      "example": "In a NIST comparison of seven similar vacuum chambers, the vacuum-fired 316L chamber had hydrogen outgassing below 1 x 10^-11 Pa L/s/cm2, in the same ultra-low class as the titanium and aluminium chambers.",
      "source": "nist-vacuum-2020",
      "where": "Abstract and hydrogen outgassing results"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Nickel",
      "abundance": "Stainless and alloy steel plus nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85% of US domestic consumption. World reserves are more than 140,000,000 t, of which Indonesia holds 62,000,000 t (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "New Caledonia",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 3.1,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Nickel recovered from scrap accounted for about 60% of US apparent consumption in 2025, and most recycled nickel goes into new alloys and stainless steel (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "Low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in construction (USGS 2026)",
        "Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments (USGS 2026)"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Nickel import reliance, United States",
      "abundance": "US net import reliance was an estimated 41% of apparent consumption in 2025 (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled nickel was about 60% of apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-nickel-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics (net import reliance row, 2025e)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium",
      "abundance": "World resources are greater than 12 billion t of shipping-grade chromite, and 95% of world chromium resources lie in Kazakhstan and southern Africa (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 17.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Kazakhstan",
          "share_percent": 13.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "share_percent": 5.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Zimbabwe",
          "share_percent": 3.9,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium in stainless-steel scrap receipts was 21% of US apparent consumption in 2025 (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use (USGS 2026)"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-chromium-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e, gross weight); World Resources; Substitutes; Recycling"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium import reliance, United States",
      "abundance": "US net import reliance was 79% of apparent consumption in 2025 (estimated). Chromite imports 2021 to 2024: South Africa 96%, Turkey 3% (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium was 21% of apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-chromium-2026",
      "where": "Salient Statistics (net import reliance row); Import Sources (2021 to 2024)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Molybdenum",
      "abundance": "Molybdenum is used principally as an alloying agent in cast iron, steel and superalloys (USGS 2026). World mine production was an estimated 260,000 t of molybdenum content in 2025.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 37.3,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Chile",
          "share_percent": 16.2,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "United States",
          "share_percent": 15.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "share_percent": 15,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Mexico",
          "share_percent": 6.5,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Molybdenum recycled as part of new and old steel and other scrap may be as much as 30% of apparent supply (USGS 2026).",
      "substitutes": [
        "There is little substitution for molybdenum in steels and cast irons (USGS 2026)"
      ],
      "source": "usgs-molybdenum-2026",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); Domestic Production and Use; Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Molybdenum export controls",
      "abundance": "The Government of China imposed export controls on molybdenum powders in February 2025, and the United States and other countries have sought alternative sources (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-molybdenum-2026",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Critical-mineral status",
      "abundance": "Nickel and chromium are on the USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (60 minerals, November 2025). Molybdenum is not on the list.",
      "producers": [],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals: nickel",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals: chromium",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals: molybdenum",
          "listed": false
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-crit-2025",
      "where": "About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals page (bulleted list); EU critical raw materials list not read"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (REV 2024 01 11)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
      "year": 2024
    },
    {
      "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l"
    },
    {
      "title": "Influence of 40% Cold Working and Annealing on Precipitation in AISI 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel (PMC9505488)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9505488/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Fedchak et al.: Outgassing rate comparison of seven geometrically similar vacuum chambers of different materials and heat treatments (arXiv:2009.10560)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/2009.10560",
      "year": 2020
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS: About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Nickel (CID 935) GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/935",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976) GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23976",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932) GHS classification",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23932",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Alleima: list of alloys (billets and blooms), grade table with UNS, ASTM and EN steel numbers",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys"
    },
    {
      "title": "Aalco: Stainless Steel - Austenitic - 1.4404 (316L) Sheet and Plate (Quarto Plate and CPP)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14404-316L-Sheet-and-Plate-Quarto-Plate--CPP-Plate_346.ashx"
    },
    {
      "title": "Carpenter Technology: 316L alloy page (UNS, applicable specifications)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.carpentertechnology.com/alloy-finder/316L"
    },
    {
      "title": "Outokumpu: quarto plate page, Supra 316L/4404 and Supra 316L/4435 entries",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.outokumpu.com/en/products/flat-products/quarto-plate"
    },
    {
      "title": "ICAST Alloys: ASTM A240 UNS S31603 data sheet, cross reference table",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20A240%20UNS%20S31603.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Alloys International: stainless steel 316L page (W.Nr and EN names, specifications)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://alloysintl.com/inventory/stainless-steel/stainless_steel316L/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Total Materia: EN 1.4404 international equivalent materials",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1055292"
    },
    {
      "title": "Total Materia: ASTM A 240 Type 316L international equivalent materials",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1261273"
    },
    {
      "title": "Total Materia: ASTM A 312 TP316L international equivalent materials",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1260779"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Medical implant use is recorded in the story only, because the application list has no medical value. Wikipedia calls 316L the preferred grade for medical implants.",
    "No flight, space-thermal, radiation or cryogenic result for 316L was found in this run. The only vacuum source is a laboratory outgassing comparison of chambers, not a space test.",
    "Poisson's ratio, hardness at temperature and cryogenic strength were not found in the pages read in this run.",
    "The AZoM 316L page could not be located, the Ulbrich 316L page returned HTTP 403, and the ASM Alloy Digest is behind a paywall.",
    "The Combined Metals (193 GPa) and UPMET (200 GPa) Young's moduli disagree. Both are kept with their conditions.",
    "The UPMET electrical resistivity table labels its two columns with the wrong units, so it is not used. The Combined Metals value (74 microohm cm) is used instead.",
    "The Combined Metals table labels the annealed row both as minimum and as typical. The yield and tensile values are kept as printed, with the label in conditions.",
    "The PubChem compound web page returned a browser check to the fetch tool, so the hazard records were read from PubChem's REST data for the same CIDs. No 316L safety data sheet was read, and welding-fume hazard was not sourced.",
    "The sigma-phase study uses 0% and 40% cold-worked 316L, not mill-annealed sheet, so the kinetics may differ for the product bought.",
    "No pitting potential, critical temperature or mg/L chloride limit for 316L was found. Only the PREN above 40 rule and qualitative statements are used.",
    "Critical-mineral status is from the USGS 2025 list only. The EU critical raw materials list was not read.",
    "Nickel, chromium and molybdenum shares are mine production only. Refinery and smelting shares were not read.",
    "Recycling and substitutes for 316L itself were not sourced beyond the element data.",
    "The Wikipedia page used for marine and medical statements is titled Marine grade stainless. Its composition table was not used for any number.",
    "Designations: the BGH 1.4435 datasheet link returned HTTP 404, so EN 1.4435 is cited from the Alleima and Outokumpu grade tables only.",
    "Designations: the F316L form is not printed under ASTM on any page read in this run. ASTM A182 is cited from the Carpenter page, and SA-182 F 316L (ASME) from Totalmateria.",
    "Designations: the ASTM A240 summary (store.astm.org, 2002 edition), the NZ Building Code Hub A240 and A276 summaries, and the BSI EN 10088-3:2023 summary print no 316L grade name, so none is cited for a designation.",
    "Designations: Totalmateria free views show 15 of about 1,000 equivalents per standard, so further national names may exist behind registration.",
    "Designations: names printed for 316L outside the requested systems were not added (GOST 03CH17N14M3, ASME SA-240, SA-312, SA-276 and SA-409, AMS and other ASTM product specifications, and GB, IS, AFNOR and CSN equivalents).",
    "Designations: the ICAST EN 1.4404 cross-reference rows for JIS, AISI and BS are misaligned (SUS 304L, 361L), so the ICAST ASTM A240 data sheet is used for those names."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Type 316L is the low-carbon version of 316. Adding 2 to 3 percent molybdenum to the chromium-nickel steel improves resistance to chloride pitting, and UPMET says the molybdenum-bearing 316 family is more resistant to pitting and crevice corrosion than Type 304. The 0.030 percent carbon limit reduces the carbide precipitation that follows welding. The datasheets list it for aerospace structures and parts exposed to marine atmospheres, and NIST tested vacuum-fired 316L for vacuum chambers.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Marine parts",
        "line": "Combined Metals lists parts exposed to marine atmospheres among the industries supplied. Wikipedia calls 316L the preferred steel for marine environments because of its greater resistance to pitting corrosion."
      },
      {
        "where": "Aerospace structures",
        "line": "UPMET lists aerospace structures among the industry applications for 316 and 316L sheet, coil and bar. The datasheet gives no flight or space test data."
      },
      {
        "where": "Vacuum hardware",
        "line": "In NIST's comparison of seven vacuum chambers, the vacuum-fired 316L chamber had hydrogen outgassing below 1 x 10^-11 Pa L/s/cm2, in the same ultra-low class as the titanium and aluminium chambers. The unfired 316L chamber was higher."
      },
      {
        "where": "Medical implants",
        "line": "Wikipedia says 316L is the preferred grade for medical implants because it resists sensitization. No space use is implied; it is recorded here for context."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "The minimum tensile strength is 485 MPa and the minimum yield is 170 MPa for plate, sheet and strip (ATI). Annealed typical values are 558 MPa tensile and 290 MPa yield (Combined Metals).",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "Young's modulus is 193 GPa at 20 C (Combined Metals) or 200 GPa (UPMET).",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "Density is 7.99 g/cm3 at 20 C (Combined Metals), 8.027 g/cm3 (UPMET) or 8.03 g/cm3 (ATI).",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Heat",
        "line": "The melting range is 1,390 to 1,440 C (UPMET). Combined Metals says the alloy is somewhat stronger at elevated temperatures than Type 304.",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Combined Metals says that the properties of 316L are similar to Type 304 except that it is somewhat stronger at elevated temperatures. UPMET says the molybdenum-bearing 316 family is more resistant to general corrosion and to pitting and crevice corrosion than Type 304. No Type 304 numbers were read in this run, so the table below compares 316L only with itself across three properties.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Melting range",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Specify 316L, not 316, for welded parts in corrosive service. UPMET lists 316 with up to 0.08 percent carbon and 316L with a 0.030 percent maximum.",
      "Avoid holding 316L between 450 and 900 C during fabrication or service. Sigma phase forms over hundreds to thousands of hours near 650 C.",
      "For vacuum service, vacuum-fire the parts at about 950 C for 24 hours under vacuum, which the NIST study found lowers hydrogen outgassing.",
      "The datasheets give ASTM A240 minimums for plate, sheet and strip and separate annealed typical values. Check the mill certificate for the form and temper being bought."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Welded corrosion-resistant parts in chloride-bearing service, where the low-carbon grade limits sensitization.",
      "Vacuum hardware that is vacuum-fired. The NIST study found its hydrogen outgassing in the ultra-low class.",
      "Marine parts exposed to salt air, which Combined Metals lists as a use."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Chloride pitting. A pitting resistance equivalent number above 40 is typically specified for submerged seawater, and 316 and 316L are not suitable for seawater condenser tubes.",
      "Sigma phase. Long holds near 650 C form sigma, chi and Laves phases alongside the carbides, and sensitize the steel.",
      "Strength is modest for a structural steel, with a minimum yield of 170 MPa on the ATI and UPMET datasheets, so the design must allow for it."
    ],
    "verdict": "316L is the choice when a 304-type steel would pit in chloride service and the part must be welded. Its limits are its heat history and its chloride limit, so specify the low-carbon grade for welds and check a pitting resistance above 40 for seawater.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "316L is an iron-based austenitic stainless steel. Its nominal composition, from the Combined Metals and UPMET data sheets, is 16 to 18 wt% chromium, 10 to 14 wt% nickel and 2 to 3 wt% molybdenum, with carbon held to 0.030 wt% maximum and iron as the balance. UPMET lists the product as coil, sheet, bar and precision strip. The NIST vacuum study fired its 316L-XHV chamber at about 950 C for 24 hours under vacuum.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The matrix of the alloy.",
          "share_note": "balance (the rest)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Forms the passive oxide film that gives corrosion resistance.",
          "share_percent": 16,
          "share_high": 18
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Holds the austenite structure.",
          "share_percent": 10,
          "share_high": 14
        },
        {
          "name": "Molybdenum",
          "symbol": "Mo",
          "role": "Increases general corrosion resistance and resistance to chloride pitting (Combined Metals).",
          "share_percent": 2,
          "share_high": 3
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Kept low so that chromium carbide does not form at grain boundaries after welding.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Impurity and processing element held to a maximum.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 2
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Held to a maximum.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.75
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Impurity held low.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.045
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulfur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "Impurity held low.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        },
        {
          "name": "Nitrogen",
          "symbol": "N",
          "role": "Held to a maximum.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.1
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The PubChem records below are for elemental nickel, chromium and molybdenum, not for the finished alloy.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Nickel",
            "line": "PubChem lists elemental nickel as Danger: H317 (skin sensitiser), H351 (suspected carcinogen) and H372 (organ damage on repeated exposure)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Chromium",
            "line": "PubChem lists elemental chromium with H317, H319 and H334 in notifications that carry hazard codes. Half of the 2,404 reports say it does not meet GHS criteria."
          },
          {
            "label": "Molybdenum",
            "line": "PubChem's notifications for the element are mixed. Some carry H228 (flammable solid) and H361 (suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child); others carry H315, H319 and H335."
          },
          {
            "label": "Workshop",
            "line": "Cutting, grinding and welding stainless steel can release metal fume and dust. No fume source was read in this run, so check the supplier safety data sheet before work."
          }
        ],
        "level": 0,
        "verdict": "Not checked against a 316L safety data sheet"
      },
      {
        "title": "Welding and heat",
        "lead": "Sensitization is the main fabrication risk, and the L grade is made low-carbon to limit it.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Range",
            "line": "Holding or slow cooling between 450 and 900 C precipitates chromium carbide at grain boundaries (Thermal Processing)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Fix",
            "line": "316L limits carbon to 0.030 percent maximum. UPMET lists 316 with up to 0.08 percent carbon, so 316L is the welded choice."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Use 316L for welded parts in corrosive service"
      },
      {
        "title": "In seawater",
        "lead": "Pitting and crevice corrosion are the main failure routes in chloride service.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Seawater",
            "line": "Wikipedia says a pitting resistance equivalent number greater than 40 is typically specified for submerged seawater service."
          },
          {
            "label": "Condenser tubes",
            "line": "Wikipedia says 316 and 316L are not suitable for seawater condenser tubes because they are susceptible to crevice and pitting corrosion."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Chloride is the watch point"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-24",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 22,
    "unreachable": 3,
    "caveats": 1,
    "note": "Written by an AI assistant on 2026-10-24 from pages fetched in that run: three datasheets, Wikipedia marine grade stainless, the Thermal Processing sensitization page, the PMC sigma-phase study, the NIST arXiv vacuum paper, USGS 2026 nickel, chromium and molybdenum, the USGS 2025 critical list, and PubChem GHS records for nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Unreachable in this run: AZoM 316L page, Ulbrich 316L page (HTTP 403), and the PubChem web page (browser check)."
  },
  "sources": {
    "ati-316l": {
      "title": "ATI: 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, UNS S31603 (product page)",
      "id": "ATI product page, 316L",
      "url": "https://atimaterials.com/Products/ati-316l",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "ATI web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "cmc-316l": {
      "title": "Combined Metals Company data sheet: Alloy 316L Stainless Steel, UNS S31603, EN-DIN 1.4404",
      "id": "REV 2024 01 11",
      "url": "https://www.combmet.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/316L-Alloy-Data-Sheet-CMC-2024-01-11.pdf",
      "year": 2024,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "upmet-316l": {
      "title": "UPMET datasheet: 316/316L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil and Bar (AMS 5524, 5507, 5648)",
      "id": "UNS S31600 and S31603",
      "url": "https://www.upmet.com/sites/default/files/datasheets/316-316l.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "wiki-316": {
      "title": "Wikipedia: Marine grade stainless (316 and 316L; URL 316_stainless_steel)",
      "id": "Marine grade stainless",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/316_stainless_steel",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "thermal-processing": {
      "title": "Thermal Processing: Intergranular Corrosion of Austenitic Stainless Steels",
      "id": "thermalprocessing.com",
      "url": "https://thermalprocessing.com/intergranular-corrosion-of-austenitic-stainless-steels/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "pmc-sigma-316l": {
      "title": "Influence of 40% Cold Working and Annealing on Precipitation in AISI 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel",
      "id": "PMC9505488",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9505488/",
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "open-access article (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "nist-vacuum-2020": {
      "title": "Fedchak et al.: Outgassing rate comparison of seven geometrically similar vacuum chambers of different materials and heat treatments",
      "id": "arXiv:2009.10560",
      "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/2009.10560",
      "year": 2020,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "arXiv preprint (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-nickel-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "id": "mcs2026-nickel",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-chromium-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "id": "mcs2026-chromium",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-molybdenum-2026": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Molybdenum",
      "id": "mcs2026-molybdenum",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-molybdenum.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-crit-2025": {
      "title": "USGS: About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
      "id": "2025 List of Critical Minerals, November 2025",
      "url": "https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "pubchem-nickel": {
      "title": "PubChem: Nickel (CID 935), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 935",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/935",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-chromium": {
      "title": "PubChem: Chromium (CID 23976), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 23976",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23976",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "pubchem-molybdenum": {
      "title": "PubChem: Molybdenum (CID 23932), Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification",
      "id": "CID 23932",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23932",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem terms (public)"
    },
    "alleima-list": {
      "title": "Alleima: list of alloys (billets and blooms), grade table with UNS, ASTM and EN steel numbers",
      "id": "Alleima list of alloys",
      "url": "https://www.alleima.com/cz/products/billets-and-blooms/list-of-alloys",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "aalco-316l": {
      "title": "Aalco: Stainless Steel - Austenitic - 1.4404 (316L) Sheet and Plate (Quarto Plate and CPP)",
      "id": "1.4404 (316L) sheet and plate",
      "url": "https://www.aalco.co.uk/datasheets/Stainless-Steel-14404-316L-Sheet-and-Plate-Quarto-Plate--CPP-Plate_346.ashx",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "carpenter-316l": {
      "title": "Carpenter Technology: 316L alloy page (UNS, applicable specifications)",
      "id": "316L alloy finder page",
      "url": "https://www.carpentertechnology.com/alloy-finder/316L",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "outokumpu-quarto": {
      "title": "Outokumpu: quarto plate page, Supra 316L/4404 and Supra 316L/4435 entries",
      "id": "quarto plate page",
      "url": "https://www.outokumpu.com/en/products/flat-products/quarto-plate",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "icast-astm-a240": {
      "title": "ICAST Alloys: ASTM A240 UNS S31603 data sheet, cross reference table",
      "id": "ASTM A240 UNS S31603",
      "url": "https://www.icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20A240%20UNS%20S31603.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "stockist data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "alloys-intl-316l": {
      "title": "Alloys International: stainless steel 316L page (W.Nr and EN names, specifications)",
      "id": "stainless_steel316L page",
      "url": "https://alloysintl.com/inventory/stainless-steel/stainless_steel316L/",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "stockist web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "totalmateria-en-1-4404": {
      "title": "Total Materia: EN 1.4404 international equivalent materials",
      "id": "EN 1.4404 (free view)",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1055292",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "database page, free view (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "totalmateria-astm-a240-316l": {
      "title": "Total Materia: ASTM A 240 Type 316L international equivalent materials",
      "id": "ASTM A 240 Type 316L (free view)",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1261273",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "database page, free view (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "totalmateria-astm-a312-tp316l": {
      "title": "Total Materia: ASTM A 312 TP316L international equivalent materials",
      "id": "ASTM A 312 TP316L (free view)",
      "url": "https://www.totalmateria.com/en-us/material/1260779",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "database page, free view (cited, not reproduced)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/stainless-316l/"
}