{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "stainless-310",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "stainless-austenitic",
  "name": "Stainless steel 310S",
  "abbreviation": "310S (UNS S31008, EN 1.4845)",
  "role": "heat-resistant structural alloy",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "steels-and-stainless",
  "summary": "Type 310S is the low-carbon version of the 24 to 26 percent chromium, 19 to 22 percent nickel austenitic grade 310 (Wikipedia; Atlas Steels). Its low carbon makes it less prone to embrittlement and sensitisation in service than 310 (Righton Blackburns). The producer Aperam gives a typical annealed tensile strength of 610 MPa and yield of 290 MPa at 20 °C, and a maximum continuous service temperature of 1,050 °C in air with sulphur content at or below 2 g/m3 (Aperam). Above 2 g/m3 of sulphur the limit falls to 950 °C (Aperam). The values in this profile are for 310S, not for 310 (UNS S31000, carbon up to 0.25 percent).\n",
  "best_for": "Furnace and heat-treatment parts that run hot in oxidising air up to about 1,050 °C, with good creep strength and oxidation resistance",
  "weakest_at": "Sulphur-bearing hot gases, which cut the service limit to 950 °C, and long exposure between 650 and 900 °C, which causes sigma-phase embrittlement and chromium-carbide sensitisation",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Fe balance, 24 to 26 Cr, 19 to 22 Ni, max 0.08 C, max 2.00 Mn, max 1.50 Si, max 0.045 P, max 0.030 S (wt%, ASTM A240 composition for 310S)",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "S31008",
        "source": "atlas-310",
        "where": "Grade Specification Comparison table, UNS No column, row 310S"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "1.4845",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Grade designation table, European designation column (EN 10095)"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "X8CrNi25-21",
        "source": "atlas-310",
        "where": "Grade Specification Comparison table, Euronorm Name column, row 310S"
      },
      {
        "system": "DIN",
        "code": "X8CrNi25-21",
        "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
        "where": "Normen und Bezeichnungen table, DIN row"
      },
      {
        "system": "AISI",
        "code": "310S",
        "source": "righton-310s",
        "where": "Alloy designations list, AISI 310S"
      },
      {
        "system": "SAE",
        "code": "310S",
        "source": "wiki-sae-310s",
        "where": "Article title, SAE 310S stainless steel"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "A240",
        "note": "plate, sheet and strip",
        "source": "righton-310s",
        "where": "Chemical composition heading, ASTM A240, S31008 Plate"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "SUS 310S",
        "source": "atlas-310",
        "where": "Grade Specification Comparison table, Japanese JIS column, row 310S"
      },
      {
        "system": "SS",
        "code": "2361",
        "source": "atlas-310",
        "where": "Grade Specification Comparison table, Swedish SS column, row 310S"
      },
      {
        "system": "BS",
        "code": "310S24",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-310s",
        "where": "Specifications and Standards Listed, BS 970 entry"
      },
      {
        "system": "AFNOR",
        "code": "Z12CN25-20",
        "source": "aircraftmaterials-310s",
        "where": "Specifications and Standards Listed, AFNOR entry"
      }
    ],
    "source": "atlas-310",
    "where": "Composition Specification table, row 310S (single values are maxima)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "thermal-control",
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, 310S cold rolled and annealed sheet",
      "value": 7.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/dm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845, S31008)",
        "form": "cold rolled and annealed sheet",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "kg/dm³"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet (typical value)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Density row, 20 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, 310S",
      "value": 8.03,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "0.29 lb/in³"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a stockholder's AISI 310S page",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The producer sheet gives 7.8 kg/dm3 for the same grade. The two differ by about 3 percent, so both are recorded.",
      "source": "goodfellow-310s",
      "where": "Physical properties section, density figure",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point (liquidus), 310S",
      "value": 1410,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "point": "liquidus",
        "unit_in_source": "°C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Melting temperature row, Liquidus",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "label": "Specific heat capacity at 20 °C, 310S",
      "value": 480,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/(kg·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "form": "cold rolled and annealed sheet",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "J/kg·K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Specific heat row, 20 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 20 °C, 310S (producer)",
      "value": 13,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "form": "cold rolled and annealed sheet",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "W/m·K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Thermal conductivity row, 20 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 20 °C, 310S (distributor)",
      "value": 15,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4845 / 310S",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "W/m K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a German stockholder's 1.4845 data sheet, physical properties at 20 °C",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Two datasheets give 13 and 15 W/(m·K) at 20 °C, so the value is about 13 to 15.",
      "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
      "where": "Physikalische Eigenschaften table, Wärmeleitfähigkeit column, bei 20°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
        "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 200 °C, 310S",
      "value": 16.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "temperature": "20 to 200 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "10 -6/K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Mean thermal expansion coefficient, row 20-200°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 1000 °C, 310S",
      "value": 18.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "temperature": "20 to 1000 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "10 -6/K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Mean thermal expansion coefficient, row 20-1,000°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Mean coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 100 °C, 310S",
      "value": 15.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "µm/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "temperature": "20 to 100 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "µm/m·K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a stockholder's AISI 310S page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-310s",
      "where": "Physical properties section, thermal expansion row, 68 to 212 °F",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity at 20 °C, 310S",
      "value": 0.86,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Ω·mm²/m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "Ω mm2 /m"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Electric resistivity row, 20 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Young's modulus at 20 °C, 310S",
      "value": 195,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "form": "cold rolled and annealed sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Young's modulus row, 20 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity at 20 °C, 1.4845",
      "value": 196,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4845",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "kN / mm²"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a German stockholder's 1.4845 data sheet, mechanical properties at 20 °C",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
      "where": "Mechanische Eigenschaften table, Elastizitätsmodul column, bei 20°C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
        "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength Rm, typical, 310S annealed",
      "value": 610,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845, S31008)",
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "basis": "typical value, length 50 mm for thickness below 3 mm"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties section, table row 310S, column Rm (MPa), in the annealed condition",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, typical, 310S annealed",
      "value": 290,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845, S31008)",
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "basis": "typical value"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties section, table row 310S, column Rp0.2 (MPa), in the annealed condition",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation A, typical, 310S annealed",
      "value": 42,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845, S31008)",
        "temper": "annealed",
        "basis": "typical value, length 50 mm for thickness below 3 mm"
      },
      "method": "Typical value printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties section, table row 310S, column A (%), in the annealed condition",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, specified minimum, ASTM A240 flat product",
      "value": 515,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "form": "flat rolled product (plate, sheet and coil) to ASTM A240",
        "basis": "minimum specified",
        "unit_in_source": "ksi 75 min"
      },
      "method": "Minimum specified value printed in a distributor's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Mechanical Property Specification table, row 310S, column Tensile Strength min",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Atlas Steels, Stainless Steel 310, 310S, 310H Grade Data Sheet",
        "id": "Atlas Quality Management, revised 23/04/2021",
        "url": "https://atlassteels.com.au/stainless-steel-310-310s-310h-grade-data-sheet-23-04-21",
        "year": 2021,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "distributor data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength 0.2 percent proof, specified minimum, ASTM A240 flat product",
      "value": 205,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "form": "flat rolled product (plate, sheet and coil) to ASTM A240",
        "basis": "minimum specified",
        "unit_in_source": "ksi 30 min"
      },
      "method": "Minimum specified value printed in a distributor's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Mechanical Property Specification table, row 310S, column Yield Strength 0.2% Proof min",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Atlas Steels, Stainless Steel 310, 310S, 310H Grade Data Sheet",
        "id": "Atlas Quality Management, revised 23/04/2021",
        "url": "https://atlassteels.com.au/stainless-steel-310-310s-310h-grade-data-sheet-23-04-21",
        "year": 2021,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "distributor data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, specified minimum, ASTM A240 flat product",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "form": "flat rolled product to ASTM A240",
        "gauge_length": "50 mm",
        "basis": "minimum specified"
      },
      "method": "Minimum specified value printed in a distributor's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Mechanical Property Specification table, row 310S, column Elongation % in 50mm min",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Atlas Steels, Stainless Steel 310, 310S, 310H Grade Data Sheet",
        "id": "Atlas Quality Management, revised 23/04/2021",
        "url": "https://atlassteels.com.au/stainless-steel-310-310s-310h-grade-data-sheet-23-04-21",
        "year": 2021,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "distributor data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, EN 1.4845 at 20 °C, annealed tube",
      "value": 500,
      "value_high": 750,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4845 / 310S",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "N / mm²",
        "basis": "range printed in a datasheet"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a German stockholder's data sheet, mechanical properties at 20 °C",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
      "where": "Mechanische Eigenschaften table, Zugfestigkeit Rm column, 500 - 750",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
        "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2 at 20 °C, minimum, 1.4845",
      "value": 210,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4845 / 310S",
        "temperature": "20 °C",
        "unit_in_source": "N / mm²",
        "basis": "minimum printed"
      },
      "method": "Minimum printed in a German stockholder's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
      "where": "Mechanische Eigenschaften table, Dehngrenze Rp0,2 column, ≥ 210",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
        "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength at 649 °C, annealed 310S",
      "value": 393,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "649 °C (1200 °F)",
        "basis": "value printed in a table of tensile properties at temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder's table of tensile properties at temperature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-310s",
      "where": "Tensile properties at temperature table, row 649 °C (1200 °F), Tensile Strength column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength at 649 °C, annealed 310S",
      "value": 178,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "temper": "annealed",
        "temperature": "649 °C (1200 °F)",
        "basis": "value printed in a table of tensile properties at temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a stockholder's table of tensile properties at temperature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-310s",
      "where": "Tensile properties at temperature table, row 649 °C (1200 °F), Yield Strength column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Maximum continuous service temperature in air with sulphur at or below 2 g/m3",
      "value": 1050,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "service": "continuous",
        "atmosphere": "sulphur content of 2 g/m3 or less",
        "peak": "1,100 °C peak temperature (same source)"
      },
      "method": "Typical working temperature printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "High Temperatures Properties text, first paragraph",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Maximum service temperature in sulphur above 2 g/m3",
      "value": 950,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S (1.4845)",
        "atmosphere": "sulphur content above 2 g/m3",
        "service": "maximum limit"
      },
      "method": "Limit printed in a producer's product data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "High Temperatures Properties text, sentence on sulphur contents higher than 2 g/m3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
        "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
        "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Continuous service temperature, 310S",
      "value": 1100,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "310S",
        "service": "continuous",
        "atmosphere": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "2010 °F"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a stockholder's AISI 310S page",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Aperam gives 1,050 °C continuous for sulphur at or below 2 g/m3. The stockholder page gives about 1,100 °C without a condition.",
      "source": "goodfellow-310s",
      "where": "Service and processing temperatures list, continuous service",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Service temperature in oxidising air, 1.4845",
      "value": 1050,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "1.4845",
        "atmosphere": "oxidising air, not sulphur-bearing",
        "service": "heat resistant range up to about 1050 °C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a German stockholder's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "teamedelstahl-14845",
      "where": "Kurzbeschreibung paragraph, Anwendungsbereich bis ca. 1050 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
        "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
        "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Sulphur-bearing hot gases, oxidising or reducing",
      "headline": "Sulphur in the hot gas cuts the usable temperature of 310S from 1,050 °C to 950 °C.",
      "effect": "Aperam says sulphur contents above 2 g/m3 decrease the maximum temperature to 950 °C. The German datasheet says 1.4845 has only low resistance in oxidising and reducing sulphur-bearing atmospheres.",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "atmosphere": "sulphur content above 2 g/m3 at high temperature",
        "basis": "limit printed in producer and stockholder datasheets"
      },
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "High Temperatures Properties text, sulphur contents higher than 2g/m3"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Long exposure at high temperature, then aqueous service",
      "headline": "After long exposure at high temperature, 310S can suffer intergranular corrosion from chromium carbide precipitation.",
      "effect": "Aperam says grade 310S can be susceptible to intergranular corrosion after a long period of exposure to high temperature because of chromium carbide precipitation. Goodfellow gives a sensitisation range of 427 to 899 °C.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "427 to 899 °C (800 to 1650 °F), sensitisation range",
        "exposure": "long period, duration not stated"
      },
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Corrosion section, first paragraph"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Cyclic oxidation in air at 1,000 °C",
      "headline": "310S resists repeated heating and cooling in air at 1,000 °C well.",
      "effect": "Aperam ran a thermal cycle between 600 and 1,000 °C with 33 h dwell to reach 3,000 h total at 1,000 °C. It reports very high oxidation resistance. The mass-gain curve is in the source as a figure only.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "environment": "1,000 °C air, thermal cycle 600 to 1,000 °C",
        "total_dwell": "3,000 h at 1,000 °C"
      },
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "High Temperatures Properties text, Cyclic Oxidation box"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Carburising atmospheres at high temperature",
      "headline": "Sources disagree on carburising resistance, so test before using 310S in carburising service.",
      "effect": "Aperam gives excellent resistance to carburising. The German datasheet says 1.4845 is not suited to carburising conditions at high temperatures, and Righton says it can be used in moderately carburising atmospheres.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "statements in three datasheets, no measured rate given"
      },
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Key features list, Excellent resistance to carburizing"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Chloride and sea water, aqueous",
      "headline": "Atlas says 310 family grades resist sea water at about 22 °C about as well as 316.",
      "effect": "Atlas gives a pitting resistance equivalent of about 25 and says sea water resistance at about 22 °C is similar to grade 316. Atlas says this is for the 310 family, not for 310S alone. No pitting rate for 310S was read.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "family-level statement, no test conditions printed"
      },
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Corrosion Resistance section, first paragraph"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Welding stainless steel gives off hexavalent chromium, a well-established carcinogen, and nickel, a possible carcinogen. The CDC source says these are more serious concerns than the other fume components. The CDC source names source reduction and local exhaust ventilation as the controls.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "cdc-welding-fume",
        "where": "Introductory text on stainless steel welding fume, and control measures"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Intergranular corrosion after long high-temperature exposure",
        "trigger": "Long exposure between about 427 and 899 °C, for example in a furnace that runs for many hours in that band",
        "consequence": "Chromium carbide forms at grain boundaries, so the steel can corrode between the grains in aqueous service",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Corrosion section, first paragraph"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Sigma-phase embrittlement",
        "trigger": "Long service between 650 and 900 °C",
        "consequence": "The steel loses toughness. Atlas says heating to 1,040 to 1,150 °C restores ductility after each 1,000 hours above 650 °C.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "atlas-310",
        "where": "Heat Resistance section, sigma phase sentence, and Heat Treatment section"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Loss of service limit in sulphur-bearing gas",
        "trigger": "Hot gas with sulphur content above 2 g/m3",
        "consequence": "Maximum service temperature falls from 1,050 °C to 950 °C",
        "severity": "critical",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "High Temperatures Properties text, sulphur sentence"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Hot cracking during welding",
        "trigger": "Welding at high interpass temperature or high heat input",
        "consequence": "The producer says 310S is somewhat susceptible to hot cracking, and recommends interpass temperature below 150 °C and low heat input",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Welding section, paragraph on hot cracking"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "Nickel supply is concentrated in Indonesia, which the USGS estimates at about two thirds of 2025 world mine production, and nickel is a main cost of the grade.",
        "affects": "Cost and availability of the alloy",
        "source": "usgs-mcs2026-nickel",
        "where": "Events, Trends and Issues, and Substitutes sections"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Weld with argon shielding. Hydrogen and nitrogen shielding gases are forbidden for 310S by the producer. The welds must be mechanically descaled and cleaned.",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Welding section, shielding gas table and paragraph on weld cleaning"
      },
      {
        "text": "Pickle with 10 % HNO3 plus 2 % HF at ambient temperature or up to 60 °C, or with 10 % H2SO4 plus 0.5 % HNO3 at 60 °C. Passivate with 20 to 25 % HNO3 at 20 °C.",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Heat Treatment and Finishing section, Pickling and Passivation"
      },
      {
        "text": "Use local exhaust ventilation when welding indoors, and respiratory protection where ventilation is not adequate.",
        "source": "cdc-welding-fume",
        "where": "Control measures section"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Anneal at 1,050 °C plus or minus 25 °C for a couple of minutes after cold forming and welding, then air cool or water quench.",
        "source": "aperam-310s",
        "where": "Heat Treatment and Finishing section, Annealing"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "thermal-control",
      "device": "Industrial furnace and boiler components, furnace doors, fans, piping and recuperators",
      "example": "Aperam lists industrial furnace and boiler components, tubes and expansion bellows, and heat exchangers among its applications for 310S. The German datasheet lists furnace construction and high-temperature apparatus.",
      "source": "aperam-310s",
      "where": "Applications list"
    },
    {
      "application": "thermal-control",
      "device": "Heat exchangers and furnace parts",
      "example": "Atlas lists furnace parts, oil burner parts and heat exchangers as typical applications of the 310 family.",
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Typical Applications paragraph"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Carburising boxes, heat treatment baskets and jigs",
      "example": "Atlas lists carburising boxes, heat treatment baskets and jigs among typical applications. Righton lists annealing covers and boxes, burner grids and muffles and retorts under thermal processing.",
      "source": "atlas-310",
      "where": "Typical Applications paragraph; see also righton-310s Applications list"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Nickel production by country",
      "abundance": "World nickel mine production was an estimated 3.9 million t in 2025, and world reserves are more than 140 million t (USGS 2026).",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "New Caledonia",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Nickel recovered from scrap was about 60 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025, and most secondary nickel is stainless-steel scrap (USGS).",
      "substitutes": [
        "Low-nickel, duplex or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in construction (USGS)."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-nickel",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e column; Recycling and Substitutes sections"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium supply",
      "abundance": "Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use (USGS 2026). South Africa was the leading chromite ore producer.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 96
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "Recycled chromium in stainless-steel scrap receipts supplied 21 percent of US apparent consumption in 2025 (USGS).",
      "substitutes": [
        "Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys (USGS)."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-chromium",
      "where": "Import Sources (2021-24) line; Recycling; Substitutes; Events, Trends and Issues"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, © 2025)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "Atlas Steels, Stainless Steel 310, 310S, 310H Grade Data Sheet (revised 23/04/2021)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://atlassteels.com.au/stainless-steel-310-310s-310h-grade-data-sheet-23-04-21",
      "year": 2021
    },
    {
      "title": "Righton Blackburns, Stainless Steel S31008 (310S) Sheet and Plate datasheet (updated 05 August 2021)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.rightonblackburns.co.uk/datasheets/view/Righton-Blackburns-Ltd_Stainless-Steel-S31008-310S-Sheet-and-Plate_272.pdf",
      "year": 2021
    },
    {
      "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845 (X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Aircraft Materials, Alloy 310S (WS 1.4845) technical data",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/310stube.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Wikipedia, SAE 310S stainless steel",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_310S_stainless_steel",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "CDC/NIOSH, Source Reduction: Practical Issues in Minimizing Welding Fume Exposures",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/211140"
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No Outokumpu 310S datasheet was found by search, and the Aalco 310S datasheet link returned an aluminium 6063 page. Neither is cited.",
    "The AZoM 310 property page returned an index only, so no AZoM value is used.",
    "The Atlas physical properties row covers 310, 310S and 310H together, so its density, modulus, conductivity and resistivity values are not used for 310S alone.",
    "The distributor datasheet gives carbon up to 0.10 percent (EN-style) against 0.08 percent (ASTM A240); both are noted, and the composition in the recipe follows ASTM A240.",
    "Electrical resistivity from the German datasheet (0,85 ohm mm2/m) is not recorded because the decimal comma in the source could not be matched; the producer value 0.86 is used.",
    "Hardness: the Atlas and German datasheets give 217 HB and 192 HB maxima, but hardness is not in the canonical property list, so it is left out.",
    "No electrical conductivity, outgassing (NASA total mass loss), cold-welding, or atomic oxygen data were found for 310S.",
    "Cryogenic toughness is described qualitatively in the Righton and Atlas datasheets; no toughness value at low temperature was read.",
    "Critical-minerals list status for nickel and chromium was not read in these USGS texts, so critical_lists is left empty.",
    "Sigma-phase and cold-cracking statements come from the 310 family text in Atlas (its heat resistance paragraph refers to 310H), and are applied here to the 310 family.",
    "Radiation effects on 310S were not looked up."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Type 310S is the 24 to 26 percent chromium and 19 to 22 percent nickel austenitic grade used for high-temperature service (Atlas; Aperam). The producer's typical annealed tensile strength is 610 MPa at 20 °C, and its yield is 290 MPa. In air it resists oxidation up to 1,050 °C continuous service with sulphur at or below 2 g/m3 (Aperam).",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Furnace and boiler parts",
        "line": "Aperam lists industrial furnace and boiler components, tubes and expansion bellows, and heat exchangers as uses for 310S. Atlas lists furnace parts, oil burner parts and carburising boxes."
      },
      {
        "where": "Heat treatment equipment",
        "line": "Atlas lists heat treatment baskets and jigs. Righton lists annealing covers and boxes, burner grids, muffles and retorts."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Stand heat in air",
        "line": "Aperam gives 1,050 °C continuous with sulphur at or below 2 g/m3, and 1,100 °C peak. The German datasheet gives a range of use up to about 1,050 °C in oxidising conditions.",
        "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "1,050 °C continuous"
      },
      {
        "label": "Strength when annealed",
        "line": "Typical annealed tensile strength is 610 MPa and yield is 290 MPa at 20 °C, with 42 percent elongation (Aperam). The minimum for flat product to ASTM A240 is 515 MPa tensile and 205 MPa yield.",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "610 MPa tensile"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "Young's modulus is 195 GPa at 20 °C (Aperam) and 196 GPa in the German datasheet.",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "195 GPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "The producer gives 7.8 kg/dm3 at 20 °C. Goodfellow gives 8.03 g/cm3 for the same grade, so the density is about 7.8 to 8.0.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "7.8 kg/dm3"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Among the three rows below, the density is about 7.8 to 8.0 kg/dm3 and the thermal conductivity is about 13 to 15 W/(m·K) at 20 °C, both from the two datasheets that print them. The service limit is the sulphur-dependent figure from Aperam. Read the rows as examples of this grade only, because other profiles in this site are different alloys.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Maximum service temperature",
        "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Specify the composition as ASTM A240 310S (carbon max 0.08 percent), since EN-style supply can run to 0.10 percent carbon.",
      "Keep long exposure between 650 and 900 °C in mind, and anneal after 1,000 hours above 650 °C if the part is critical (Atlas).",
      "Keep sulphur out of the hot gas if the part must run near 1,050 °C."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Hot air and furnace service up to 1,050 °C continuous, with sulphur at or below 2 g/m3 (Aperam).",
      "Parts that must keep strength and scale resistance at high temperature, such as heat-treatment baskets and jigs (Atlas).",
      "Cryogenic toughness is claimed in the datasheets as austenitic toughness, but no low-temperature number was read."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Sulphur in the hot gas cuts the usable limit to 950 °C.",
      "Long exposure between 427 and 899 °C causes chromium-carbide sensitisation, and between 650 and 900 °C sigma-phase embrittlement.",
      "Hot cracking during welding: keep the interpass temperature below 150 °C and the heat input low.",
      "Welding fume contains hexavalent chromium and nickel. Use local exhaust ventilation."
    ],
    "verdict": "Type 310S is an austenitic stainless steel for hot air and furnace parts up to about 1,050 °C, with a typical annealed tensile strength of 610 MPa at 20 °C. Its limits are sulphur-bearing gas, which drops the limit to 950 °C, and long time between 427 and 900 °C, which causes sensitisation and sigma-phase embrittlement. The producer and distributor values differ, so specify the grade and standard on the order.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "310S is an iron-based austenitic stainless steel with chromium and nickel as the main alloying elements, and carbon kept low (max 0.08 percent) to limit carbide precipitation (Atlas; Righton). It is solution annealed at 1,040 to 1,150 °C and cooled rapidly for maximum corrosion resistance (Atlas).",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "The matrix of the alloy, holding the austenite structure.",
          "share_note": "balance (the rest)"
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Gives the corrosion and oxidation resistance named in the datasheets (Aperam; Atlas).",
          "share_percent": 24,
          "share_high": 26
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Stabilises the austenite structure.",
          "share_percent": 19,
          "share_high": 22
        },
        {
          "name": "Carbon",
          "symbol": "C",
          "role": "Kept low (maximum 0.08 percent for 310S) to limit sensitisation; 310 and 310H allow higher carbon (Atlas; Righton).",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.08
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Deoxidiser and austenite former.",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 2
        },
        {
          "name": "Silicon",
          "symbol": "Si",
          "role": "Deoxidiser, as printed for the melt chemistry (Atlas specification).",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 1.5
        },
        {
          "name": "Phosphorus",
          "symbol": "P",
          "role": "Impurity, limited by the specification (Atlas).",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.045
        },
        {
          "name": "Sulphur",
          "symbol": "S",
          "role": "Impurity, limited by the specification (Atlas).",
          "share_percent": 0,
          "share_high": 0.03
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The welding fume is the main health concern named in the sources. Nothing read says the solid steel is a health hazard.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Welding fume",
            "line": "Stainless steel welding releases hexavalent chromium and nickel. The CDC source calls these more serious concerns than the other fume components, and asks for local exhaust ventilation."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Welding fume"
      },
      {
        "title": "If it fails",
        "lead": "These are failure routes named in the sources. Most are heat-related and depend on time at temperature and on the gas.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Sulphur gas",
            "line": "With sulphur above 2 g/m3 in the hot gas, the usable limit falls from 1,050 °C to 950 °C (Aperam)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Long heat exposure",
            "line": "Between about 650 and 900 °C, long service can cause sigma-phase embrittlement, and between 427 and 899 °C it can cause chromium-carbide sensitisation (Atlas, Aperam, Goodfellow)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Welding",
            "line": "310S is somewhat prone to hot cracking, so the producer keeps the interpass temperature below 150 °C and the heat input low."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Shielding gas",
            "line": "Use argon-based shielding. Hydrogen and nitrogen are forbidden for 310S welds (Aperam)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Restore the structure",
            "line": "After cold forming or welding, anneal at 1,050 °C plus or minus 25 °C, then air cool or quench (Aperam)."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-25",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 26,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 4,
    "note": "Values read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-25 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. Caveats: producer and distributor values differ for density, thermal conductivity and expansion; service limits differ with sulphur content; the composition limits differ between ASTM (0.08 percent carbon) and EN-style (0.10 percent) sources; the supply shares for nickel are computed from printed tonnages."
  },
  "sources": {
    "aperam-310s": {
      "title": "Aperam Stainless Europe, Heat Resisting Austenitic Stainless Steel 310S (FT_310S.en, 2025)",
      "id": "EN 10095 1.4845, ASTM A240 S31008",
      "url": "https://www.aperam.com/sites/default/files/documents/FT_310S_en_web.pdf",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "producer product sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "atlas-310": {
      "title": "Atlas Steels, Stainless Steel 310, 310S, 310H Grade Data Sheet",
      "id": "Atlas Quality Management, revised 23/04/2021",
      "url": "https://atlassteels.com.au/stainless-steel-310-310s-310h-grade-data-sheet-23-04-21",
      "year": 2021,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "distributor data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "righton-310s": {
      "title": "Righton Blackburns, Stainless Steel S31008 (310S) Sheet and Plate datasheet",
      "id": "S31008, 1.4845, AISI 310S, ASTM A240",
      "url": "https://www.rightonblackburns.co.uk/datasheets/view/Righton-Blackburns-Ltd_Stainless-Steel-S31008-310S-Sheet-and-Plate_272.pdf",
      "year": 2021,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "teamedelstahl-14845": {
      "title": "Team Edelstahl, Werkstoff Datenblatt 1.4845, Austenitischer hitzebeständiger Edelstahl",
      "id": "EN 1.4845, DIN X8CrNi25-21, AISI 310S, UNS S31008",
      "url": "https://www.teamedelstahl.de/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/1.4845.pdf",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "stockholder datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "goodfellow-310s": {
      "title": "Goodfellow, AISI 310S Stainless Steel: Properties, Processing and Applications",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/eu/resources/aisi-310s-stainless-steel-properties-processing-applications/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "supplier web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "aircraftmaterials-310s": {
      "title": "Aircraft Materials, Alloy 310S (WS 1.4845) technical data",
      "id": "UNS S31008, BS 970 310S24, AFNOR Z12CN25-20",
      "url": "https://www.aircraftmaterials.com/data/alstst/310stube.html",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "wiki-sae-310s": {
      "title": "Wikipedia, SAE 310S stainless steel",
      "id": "SAE 310S",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_310S_stainless_steel",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "cdc-welding-fume": {
      "title": "CDC/NIOSH, Source Reduction: Practical Issues in Minimizing Welding Fume Exposures",
      "url": "https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/211140",
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "US government publication (public domain)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-nickel": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "id": "mcs2026-nickel",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-chromium": {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "id": "mcs2026-chromium",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/stainless-310/"
}