{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "soda-lime-glass",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "glass-and-composites",
  "name": "Soda-lime glass",
  "abbreviation": "Soda-lime",
  "role": "window and container glass",
  "category": "glasses-optics",
  "type": "borosilicate",
  "summary": "Soda-lime glass is the common window and container glass. It is silica with sodium and calcium oxides added so that it melts at a lower temperature. Continental Trade's properties sheet gives a density of 2500 kg/m3 at 18 °C and Pilkington's float-glass bulletin gives a linear thermal expansion of 8.3 x10^-6 /°C. Pilkington gives an annealing point of 548 °C and a softening point of 715 °C. Wikipedia says soda-lime glass accounts for about 90% of manufactured glass. Its high thermal expansion means it tolerates sudden temperature changes poorly, so Continental Trade sets working limits of 110 °C for not-toughened glass and 150 °C for toughened glass. See the property list for the values and conditions.\n",
  "best_for": "Windows and containers where low cost and wide availability matter more than thermal shock or alkali resistance",
  "weakest_at": "Resistance to sudden temperature changes (high thermal expansion) and to alkaline solutions (NGA: poor resistance to alkalis)",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Silica-soda-lime glass: about 72.6% SiO2, 13.9% Na2O and 8.4% CaO, with 3.9% MgO and 1.1% Al2O3 (typical sheet composition)",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
    "where": "Composition list, Soda-lime glass properties (Continental Trade)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "structures",
      "mechanisms"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 2500,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/m3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "18 °C"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 2 500 kg/m3 in the Density (at 18 °C) row. Pilkington ATS-129 gives the same 2500 kg/m3 (156 lb/ft3).",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
      "where": "Properties list, Density row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Soda-lime glass properties (information sheet)",
        "id": "Continental Trade Sp. z o.o., Soda-lime glass properties",
        "url": "https://www.continentaltrade.com.pl/en/download/WhfvdEYg1jSqsBXM5x9dRJnJfIPvp1gO/soda-lime-glass-properties.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier information sheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Young's modulus",
      "value": 72,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "float glass, Pilkington North America"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 10.4 x 10^6 psi (72 GPa) in the Modulus of Elasticity (Young's) row.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Mechanical properties, Modulus of Elasticity (Young's) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "shear_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of rigidity (shear)",
      "value": 30,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "float glass, Pilkington North America"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 4.3 x 10^6 psi (30 GPa) in the Modulus of Rigidity (Shear) row.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Mechanical properties, Modulus of Rigidity (Shear) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "poissons_ratio",
      "value": 0.22,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "float glass, Pilkington North America"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 0.22 in the Poisson's Ratio row.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Mechanical properties, Poisson's Ratio row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Linear thermal expansion coefficient",
      "value": 8.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "x10^-6 /°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "75 to 575 °F"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 4.6 x 10-6 in/in.°F (8.3 x10-6 mm/mm.°C). The metric value is used here, unconverted.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Properties list, Coefficient of Linear Expansion row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Linear thermal expansion coefficient (flat glass)",
      "value": 9.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ppm/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "about 100 to 300 °C"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 9.5 in the Coefficient of thermal expansion row, flat-glass column. Wikipedia gives 9 for container glass in the same row. The temperature range differs from the Pilkington value.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "wikipedia-soda-lime",
      "where": "Typical compositions and properties table, Coefficient of thermal expansion row, flat glass column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Soda-lime glass",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Soda-lime glass",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 0.937,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "75 °F"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 6.5 Btu.in/hr.°F.ft2 (0.937 W.m/m2.°C). The metric value is used here.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Properties list, Thermal Conductivity at 75 °F row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "value": 0.88,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kJ/(kg·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "75 °F"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 0.21 Btu/lbm.F (0.88 kJ/kg.C).",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Properties list, Specific Heat at 75 °F row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "refractive_index",
      "value": 1.523,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "wavelength": "sodium D line (printed as 0.5893 m)"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 1.523 for the sodium D line. The NGA paper gives a mean of 1.5, which is a rounded figure.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Index of Refraction, sodium D line row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "softening_point",
      "label": "Softening point (ASTM C338)",
      "value": 715,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "standard": "ASTM C338"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 1319 °F (715 °C). The NGA paper gives 715 to 729 °C.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Softening Point (ASTM C338) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "annealing_point",
      "label": "Annealing point (ASTM C336)",
      "value": 548,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "standard": "ASTM C336"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 1018 °F (548 °C). The NGA paper gives 544 to 548 °C.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Annealing Point (ASTM C336) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "strain_point",
      "label": "Strain point (ASTM C336)",
      "value": 511,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "standard": "ASTM C336"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 952 °F (511 °C). The NGA paper gives 504 to 511 °C.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Strain Point (ASTM C336) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "knoop_hardness",
      "label": "Knoop hardness",
      "value": 470,
      "value_high": 605,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/mm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "NGA range for typical soda-lime float glass"
      },
      "method": "Printed as ~470 - 605 kg/mm2 on the Hardness (Knoop's scale) line. It is a range, not a single measured value.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "nga-fm05",
      "where": "Hardness (Knoop's Scale) line, page 2",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "FM05-12 (2023) Physical and Mechanical Properties of Typical Soda Lime Float Glass",
        "id": "National Glass Association, Glass Technical Paper FM05-12",
        "url": "https://www.glass.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/FM05-12_2023_Physical_Mechanical_Properties_Typical_Soda_Lime_Float_Glass.pdf",
        "year": 2023,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "trade association paper, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_mohs",
      "label": "Mohs hardness",
      "value": 5,
      "value_high": 6,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "Mohs",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "Mohs scale, float glass (Pilkington) and sheet (Continental Trade)"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 5-6 in the Hardness (Mohs scale) row of the Pilkington bulletin. The Continental Trade sheet gives 5-6 as well.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Properties list, Hardness (Mohs scale) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "flexural_strength",
      "label": "Modulus of rupture, annealed, mean",
      "value": 41,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "annealed",
        "basis": "mean MOR, 50% probability of breakage, 60 s load on weathered in-service glass"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 6,000 psi (41 MPa) in the Typical Mean MOR table.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Mechanical properties, Typical Mean MOR table, Annealed row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "flexural_strength",
      "label": "Design stress, annealed (0.8% breakage probability)",
      "value": 19,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "annealed",
        "basis": "design stress for 0.8% breakage probability"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 2,800 psi (19 MPa) in the Typical Design Stress table.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Mechanical properties, Typical Design Stress table, Annealed row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "flexural_strength",
      "label": "Modulus of rupture, heat-strengthened, mean",
      "value": 83,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "heat-strengthened",
        "basis": "mean MOR, 50% probability of breakage"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 12,000 psi (83 MPa).",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Typical Mean MOR table, Heat-Strengthened row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "flexural_strength",
      "label": "Modulus of rupture, fully tempered, mean",
      "value": 165,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "fully tempered",
        "basis": "mean MOR, 50% probability of breakage"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 24,000 psi (165 MPa).",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "pilkington-ats129",
      "where": "Typical Mean MOR table, Fully Tempered row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
        "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
        "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
        "year": 2025,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Maximum working temperature, not toughened",
      "value": 110,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "not toughened"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 110 °C on the Max. working temperature list, not-toughened line.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
      "where": "Max. working temperature list, not toughened line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Soda-lime glass properties (information sheet)",
        "id": "Continental Trade Sp. z o.o., Soda-lime glass properties",
        "url": "https://www.continentaltrade.com.pl/en/download/WhfvdEYg1jSqsBXM5x9dRJnJfIPvp1gO/soda-lime-glass-properties.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier information sheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
      "label": "Maximum working temperature, toughened",
      "value": 150,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "glass_kind": "toughened"
      },
      "method": "Printed as 150 °C on the Max. working temperature list, toughened line.",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
      "where": "Max. working temperature list, toughened line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Soda-lime glass properties (information sheet)",
        "id": "Continental Trade Sp. z o.o., Soda-lime glass properties",
        "url": "https://www.continentaltrade.com.pl/en/download/WhfvdEYg1jSqsBXM5x9dRJnJfIPvp1gO/soda-lime-glass-properties.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier information sheet, cited not reproduced"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Acids other than hydrofluoric acid",
      "headline": "Excellent resistance to acids, other than hydrofluoric acid.",
      "effect": "NGA rates the chemical resistance of typical float glass as excellent to acids other than HF. No rate or test duration is printed.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "general chemical-resistance statement; no test conditions given"
      },
      "source": "nga-fm05",
      "where": "Properties list, Chemical Resistance line, page 3"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Alkaline solutions",
      "headline": "Poor resistance to alkalis.",
      "effect": "NGA rates the chemical resistance of typical float glass as poor to alkalis. No rate, concentration or duration is printed in the paper.",
      "rating": "severe",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "general chemical-resistance statement; no test conditions given"
      },
      "source": "nga-fm05",
      "where": "Properties list, Chemical Resistance line, page 3"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Humid air under load, 80% relative humidity at 50 °C for 28 days",
      "headline": "Humidity cut the failure strain of weathered soda-lime-silicate glass by 80%.",
      "effect": "Ronchetto reports that failure strains decreased by 80% and that the fatigue parameter increased from 16 to 25 under these conditions. The specimens are commercial soda-lime-silicate glass, tested in the form the dissertation describes.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "relative_humidity": "80%",
        "temperature": "50 °C",
        "time": "28 days"
      },
      "source": "ronchetto-2019",
      "where": "Abstract and results, fatigue and weathering tests"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Humid air, 10% relative humidity at 50 °C for over 30 days",
      "headline": "At low humidity the fatigue parameter did not change over 30 days.",
      "effect": "Ronchetto reports that weathering for over 30 days did not change the fatigue parameter, and that failure strain increased by about 10% over the first three days.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "relative_humidity": "10%",
        "temperature": "50 °C",
        "time": "over 30 days"
      },
      "source": "ronchetto-2019",
      "where": "Abstract and results, weathering at 10% RH"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem's aggregated GHS for sodium carbonate, the raw material soda ash, is H319: causes serious eye irritation (Warning, 100% of reports). These classes describe the powder, not the finished glass.",
        "ghs": [
          "H319"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-sodium-carbonate",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (CID 10340)"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Thermal shock of not-toughened glass",
        "trigger": "Temperature difference across the sheet",
        "consequence": "Continental Trade gives a thermal shock limit of 50 °C for not-toughened soda-lime glass, and 118 °C for toughened glass.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
        "where": "Thermal shock list, not toughened line"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Breakage of annealed glass under design load",
        "trigger": "Load at the design stress for 0.8% breakage probability",
        "consequence": "Pilkington gives a mean bending strength of 41 MPa for annealed glass, and a design stress of 19 MPa for 0.8% breakage probability.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "pilkington-ats129",
        "where": "Typical Design Stress table, Annealed row"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Humidity fatigue and ageing of commercial soda-lime-silicate glass",
        "trigger": "80% relative humidity at 50 °C for 28 days",
        "consequence": "Failure strains decreased by 80% (Ronchetto 2019).",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "ronchetto-2019",
        "where": "Abstract and results, fatigue and weathering tests"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Attack by alkaline solutions",
        "trigger": "Contact with alkaline solutions",
        "consequence": "NGA rates the chemical resistance of float glass as poor to alkalis, so the surface can be attacked.",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "nga-fm05",
        "where": "Properties list, Chemical Resistance line"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Keep not-toughened soda-lime glass below 110 °C and toughened glass below 150 °C (Continental Trade working limits).",
        "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
        "where": "Max. working temperature list"
      },
      {
        "text": "Keep temperature differences within 50 °C for not-toughened glass and 118 °C for toughened glass (Continental Trade thermal shock list).",
        "source": "continental-trade-sheet",
        "where": "Thermal shock list"
      },
      {
        "text": "Keep the glass away from alkaline solutions. NGA rates acid resistance as excellent, except to hydrofluoric acid.",
        "source": "nga-fm05",
        "where": "Properties list, Chemical Resistance line"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": []
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Window glazing (flat glass)",
      "example": "Wikipedia says soda-lime glass is used for windowpanes, and that the float process makes window glass.",
      "source": "wikipedia-soda-lime",
      "where": "Lead and Applications section"
    },
    {
      "application": "mechanisms",
      "device": "Soda-lime glass spheres for valves, bearings and mixers",
      "example": "Kugelpompel lists special bearings and valves, mixers, low-cost control valves, metering pumps and flow meters as fields of application for its soda-lime glass spheres.",
      "source": "kugelpompel-soda-lime",
      "where": "Field of application"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Soda ash (sodium carbonate)",
      "abundance": "USGS: world natural soda ash was about 19 million t in 2025 (estimated) and total world soda ash about 71 million t (2025e). China produced about 38 million t, mostly synthetic. Glass took 45% of US soda ash use in 2025.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "United States",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "China",
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: no soda ash was recycled by producers, but glass container producers use cullet, which reduces soda ash consumption.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: caustic soda can replace soda ash in certain uses, particularly pulp and paper, water treatment and some chemical sectors."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-soda-ash",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use; Salient Statistics; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e); Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Soda ash, United States import sources",
      "abundance": "USGS: import sources for soda ash, 2021 to 2024, as printed.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Turkey",
          "share_percent": 89,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "Mexico",
          "share_percent": 3,
          "year": 2024
        },
        {
          "country": "Other",
          "share_percent": 5,
          "year": 2024
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: as above.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-soda-ash",
      "where": "Import Sources (2021-24)"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Silica sand (glassmaking sand)",
      "abundance": "USGS: US industrial sand and gravel sold or used was about 120 million t in 2025 (estimated). About 81% went to hydraulic-fracturing sand and 7% to glassmaking sand. Reserves are listed as large.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "United States",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Netherlands",
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: about 33% of glass containers are recycled, so cullet is a significant proportion of reused silica.",
      "substitutes": [],
      "source": "usgs-industrial-sand",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025 column); Recycling"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Soda-lime glass properties (Continental Trade information sheet)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.continentaltrade.com.pl/en/download/WhfvdEYg1jSqsBXM5x9dRJnJfIPvp1gO/soda-lime-glass-properties.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass (Pilkington North America, 04/2025)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
      "year": 2025
    },
    {
      "title": "FM05-12 (2023) Physical and Mechanical Properties of Typical Soda Lime Float Glass (National Glass Association)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://www.glass.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/FM05-12_2023_Physical_Mechanical_Properties_Typical_Soda_Lime_Float_Glass.pdf",
      "year": 2023
    },
    {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Soda ash (USGS)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-soda-ash.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Sand and gravel (industrial) (USGS)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-sand-industrial.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Sodium carbonate, PubChem CID 10340",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/10340"
    },
    {
      "title": "Data sheet Soda lime glass V1.01 (Kugelpompel, glass spheres)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.kugelpompel.at/img/cms/Datenbl%C3%A4tter%20Glas/Data%20sheet%20Soda-lime%20glass%20V1-01.pdf",
      "year": 2020
    },
    {
      "title": "Soda-lime glass (Wikipedia)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass"
    },
    {
      "title": "The effects of fatigue and weathering on the failure behavior of commercial soda-lime-silicate glass (Missouri S&T, Ronchetto 2019)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/doctoral_dissertations/2845",
      "year": 2019
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Property names not in spores/property-canon.yaml: softening_point, annealing_point, strain_point, knoop_hardness and hardness_mohs are used as snake_case names. The canon file needs them added before import.",
    "Thermal stress coefficient (0.62 MPa/°C, Pilkington and Continental Trade) is not used: it has no canonical name.",
    "Continental Trade thermal shock values (50 °C not toughened, 118 °C toughened) are used in failure_risks and handling only, because no canonical name fits.",
    "Container glass values: the Wikipedia table's container column is not used for composition or expansion, because its columns were matched from a flattened table. Container-glass CTE is recorded only as Wikipedia's 9 ppm/K in this note.",
    "No glass-specific safety data sheet was read. The hazard entry uses PubChem's classes for sodium carbonate, the raw material, not for the finished glass.",
    "No open paper on soda-lime leaching or weathering could be read in this run. The Engineering and Technology Journal article URL returned 404 and the Venice repository returned 403.",
    "Dielectric constant, loss tangent and volume resistivity values were not found for soda-lime glass. NGA gives electrical resistivity only as High.",
    "No radiation, vacuum or space test of soda-lime cover glass was found. NASA TN D-7245 (1973) tests ceria-doped Micro-Sheet against undoped glass but gives no composition, so it is not used.",
    "Critical-mineral status of soda ash and industrial sand was not checked in this run.",
    "Ronchetto 2019 figures were read from the fetched dissertation landing page. The full-text PDF link returned an HTML page in this run, not a PDF.",
    "Kugelpompel data are for soda-lime glass spheres, not sheet or container glass. The sheet is used only for applications.",
    "Continental Trade prints Poisson's ratio as 0,23 with a decimal comma, which verify-values could not match, so that row was removed. Pilkington's 0.22 is kept. The sheet's 0,23 is a second reading for a future check.",
    "Wikipedia gives a flat-glass CTE of 9.5 ppm/K for about 100 to 300 °C, and Pilkington gives 8.3 x10^-6 /°C for 75 to 575 °F. The temperature ranges differ, so both are kept."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Soda-lime glass is the most common glass. Soda and lime added to silica lower the melting temperature, which keeps production cheap. Wikipedia says it accounts for about 90% of manufactured glass. The trade-off is a high thermal expansion, so Continental Trade says the glass has low resistance to sudden temperature changes.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Windows",
        "line": "Wikipedia gives windowpanes as the main use of flat soda-lime glass, and says the float process makes window glass."
      },
      {
        "where": "Containers",
        "line": "Wikipedia says container glass is used for beverages and food, where its durability is required for storage."
      },
      {
        "where": "Valves and bearings",
        "line": "Kugelpompel sells soda-lime glass spheres for special bearings and valves, mixers, metering pumps and flow meters."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "Continental Trade gives 2500 kg/m3 at 18 °C. Pilkington gives the same figure.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "2500 kg/m3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Working temperature",
        "line": "Continental Trade gives a working limit of 110 °C for not-toughened glass and 150 °C for toughened glass.",
        "benchmark": "max_service_temp",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "110 °C not toughened"
      },
      {
        "label": "Softening point",
        "line": "Pilkington gives 715 °C (ASTM C338) for float glass. The NGA paper gives 715 to 729 °C.",
        "benchmark": "softening_point",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "715 °C"
      },
      {
        "label": "Bending strength",
        "line": "Pilkington's mean bending strength is 41 MPa for annealed glass, 83 MPa for heat-strengthened and 165 MPa for fully tempered glass.",
        "benchmark": "flexural_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "165 MPa fully tempered"
      },
      {
        "label": "Optics",
        "line": "Pilkington gives 1.523 for the sodium D line.",
        "benchmark": "refractive_index",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "1.523"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Soda-lime float glass has a linear thermal expansion of 8.3 x10^-6 /°C (Pilkington, 75 to 575 °F), and Wikipedia gives 9.5 ppm/K for the flat-glass column. Its working limits are 110 °C for not-toughened glass and 150 °C for toughened glass, with a softening point of 715 °C. Those limits and its annealing point of 548 °C set the practical ceiling for most uses. Its bending strength depends strongly on temper.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Softening point",
        "benchmark": "softening_point",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Linear thermal expansion",
        "benchmark": "cte",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Keep not-toughened soda-lime glass below 110 °C and toughened glass below 150 °C (Continental Trade working limits).",
      "Keep temperature differences within 50 °C for not-toughened glass and 118 °C for toughened glass (Continental Trade thermal shock list).",
      "Keep the glass away from alkaline solutions. NGA rates acid resistance as excellent, except to hydrofluoric acid."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Windows and container glass, where low cost and wide supply matter more than high-temperature or thermal-shock performance.",
      "Spheres for valves and bearings, where chemical inertness and a smooth surface are needed (Kugelpompel)."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "The thermal expansion is high. Continental Trade says the glass has low resistance to sudden temperature changes.",
      "Bending strength depends strongly on temper: annealed glass has a design stress of 19 MPa against a mean of 41 MPa (Pilkington).",
      "Humidity can cut the failure strain of soda-lime-silicate glass (Ronchetto 2019, 80% RH at 50 °C for 28 days). Ageing of sheet glass in service is not covered by the sources read here."
    ],
    "verdict": "Soda-lime glass is the low-cost default for windows and containers. The sources agree on density, expansion and the softening point, and they give clear working and thermal-shock limits. Its weak points are alkali resistance and thermal shock. No flight, radiation or vacuum result was found.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Soda-lime glass is an amorphous silica network modified by sodium and calcium oxides. Float glass is made from sand, soda ash, limestone, dolomite and salt cake, with about 20% recycled glass (cullet). Pilkington says making glass from cullet takes half the energy of making it from raw materials. The composition below is a typical sheet composition from Continental Trade. No producer's exact batch recipe is published.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Silica",
          "symbol": "SiO2",
          "role": "The main network former. It gives the glass its rigid, mostly silica framework.",
          "share_percent": 72.6
        },
        {
          "name": "Sodium oxide",
          "symbol": "Na2O",
          "role": "Added as soda ash (sodium carbonate). It lowers the melting temperature of the silica.",
          "share_percent": 13.9
        },
        {
          "name": "Calcium oxide",
          "symbol": "CaO",
          "role": "Added as limestone. It stabilises the glass network.",
          "share_percent": 8.4
        },
        {
          "name": "Magnesium oxide",
          "symbol": "MgO",
          "role": "Comes in with the dolomite in the batch.",
          "share_percent": 3.9
        },
        {
          "name": "Aluminium oxide",
          "symbol": "Al2O3",
          "role": "Minor oxide in the typical sheet composition.",
          "share_percent": 1.1
        },
        {
          "name": "Recycled glass",
          "symbol": "cullet",
          "role": "Broken glass put back into the batch as a melting aid.",
          "share_percent": 20
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "No source opened in this run classes the finished glass. The only classes read are for its raw material, sodium carbonate (H319, eye irritation). No SDS for the finished glass was opened.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Sharp edges",
            "line": "Broken glass is sharp. Handle broken pieces with gloves and dispose of them in a sharps container."
          },
          {
            "label": "Soda ash powder",
            "line": "PubChem's aggregated GHS for sodium carbonate is H319, causes serious eye irritation (Warning, 100% of reports). This describes the powder, not the finished glass."
          },
          {
            "label": "Heat",
            "line": "Keep the glass below its working limits: 110 °C not toughened and 150 °C toughened (Continental Trade)."
          }
        ],
        "level": 0,
        "verdict": "Hazard data partly checked: PubChem's classes for the raw…"
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-26",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 20,
    "unreachable": 1,
    "caveats": 3,
    "note": "Written by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from sources read in this run. Continental Trade, Pilkington ATS-129, NGA FM05-12, Wikipedia, USGS soda ash and industrial sand, PubChem sodium carbonate, Kugelpompel and the Ronchetto 2019 dissertation. Two open papers could not be opened."
  },
  "sources": {
    "continental-trade-sheet": {
      "title": "Soda-lime glass properties (information sheet)",
      "id": "Continental Trade Sp. z o.o., Soda-lime glass properties",
      "url": "https://www.continentaltrade.com.pl/en/download/WhfvdEYg1jSqsBXM5x9dRJnJfIPvp1gO/soda-lime-glass-properties.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier information sheet, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "pilkington-ats129": {
      "title": "ATS-129 Properties of soda-lime silica float glass",
      "id": "Pilkington North America, technical bulletin ATS-129 (04/2025)",
      "url": "https://www.pilkington.com/-/media/pilkington/site-content/usa/window-manufacturers/technical-bulletins/ats-129---properties-of-soda-lime-silica-float-glass.pdf",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "nga-fm05": {
      "title": "FM05-12 (2023) Physical and Mechanical Properties of Typical Soda Lime Float Glass",
      "id": "National Glass Association, Glass Technical Paper FM05-12",
      "url": "https://www.glass.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/FM05-12_2023_Physical_Mechanical_Properties_Typical_Soda_Lime_Float_Glass.pdf",
      "year": 2023,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "trade association paper, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "wikipedia-soda-lime": {
      "title": "Soda-lime glass",
      "id": "Wikipedia, Soda-lime glass",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0"
    },
    "usgs-soda-ash": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Soda ash",
      "id": "USGS, MCS 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-soda-ash.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "US government work, public domain"
    },
    "usgs-industrial-sand": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Sand and gravel (industrial)",
      "id": "USGS, MCS 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-sand-industrial.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "US government work, public domain"
    },
    "pubchem-sodium-carbonate": {
      "title": "Sodium carbonate, PubChem CID 10340",
      "id": "PubChem, GHS classification of sodium carbonate",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/10340",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "PubChem, public domain"
    },
    "kugelpompel-soda-lime": {
      "title": "Data sheet Soda lime glass V1.01",
      "id": "Kugelpompel, soda-lime glass sphere data sheet",
      "url": "https://www.kugelpompel.at/img/cms/Datenbl%C3%A4tter%20Glas/Data%20sheet%20Soda-lime%20glass%20V1-01.pdf",
      "year": 2020,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer document, cited not reproduced"
    },
    "ronchetto-2019": {
      "title": "The effects of fatigue and weathering on the failure behavior of commercial soda-lime-silicate glass",
      "id": "Missouri S&T doctoral dissertation, Ronchetto, 2019",
      "url": "https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/doctoral_dissertations/2845",
      "year": 2019,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "open-access thesis"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/soda-lime-glass/"
}