{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "nmc",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "lithium",
  "name": "Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide",
  "abbreviation": "NMC",
  "role": "cathode",
  "category": "energy",
  "type": "li-ion-cathodes",
  "summary": "NMC is a family of layered nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide cathodes; the numbers in the name (111, 622, 811) are the nickel:manganese:cobalt ratio. More nickel gives more capacity per gram, but the sources here show it also releases oxygen from the charged material at lower voltage, which makes a cell heat up faster and hotter when it fails. This profile cites NMC111, NMC622 and NMC811 separately wherever a source names the composition.\n",
  "best_for": "High capacity per gram, with the Ni-rich versions giving the most",
  "weakest_at": "Heat tolerance: charged NMC releases oxygen, and nickel-rich versions cycle stably only to lower voltage limits",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "LiNixMnyCozO2 (x+y+z=1); NMC111 = LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2, NMC622 = LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2, NMC811 = LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2; NMC532 = LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2",
    "cas": "346417-97-8",
    "crystal_system": "layered alpha-NaFeO2 type, hexagonal setting",
    "space_group": "R-3m",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "ahangari2024",
    "where": "Introduction (layered LiCoO2 / LiNixCoyMnzO2 lattice, R-3m); CAS number from PubChem CID 134693645, which lists it among synonyms; NMC532 formula from Wikipedia (Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides, lead section)"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "batteries"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "theoretical_capacity",
      "value": 275,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "mAh/g",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NCM layered oxides in general (the review does not give it per Ni:Mn:Co ratio)",
        "basis": "all lithium removed; in practice not all lithium can be removed"
      },
      "method": "Value stated in an open-access review (\"as high as about 275\")",
      "status": "calculated",
      "source": "geldasa2022",
      "where": "Section on Ni-rich NCM and cut-off voltage (statement on theoretical capacity of NCM)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Identifying surface degradation, mechanical failure, and thermal instability phenomena of high energy density Ni-rich NCM cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries - a review",
        "id": "doi:10.1039/d1ra08401a (RSC Advances 12, PMC8982025)",
        "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8982025/",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC 3.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "practical_capacity",
      "label": "Specific capacity of NMC111 in an NMC/graphite full cell, 5th cycle",
      "value": 162.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "mAh/g",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC111",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.4 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "cycle": 5,
        "units": "per gram of NMC"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling (not a half-cell); capacity per gram of NMC",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.2 V upper cutoff the same table gives 140.2 mAh/g for NMC111.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "practical_capacity",
      "label": "Specific capacity of NMC622 in an NMC/graphite full cell, 5th cycle",
      "value": 177.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "mAh/g",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC622",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.4 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "cycle": 5,
        "units": "per gram of NMC"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling (not a half-cell); capacity per gram of NMC",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.2 V upper cutoff the same table gives 155.4 mAh/g for NMC622.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "practical_capacity",
      "label": "Specific capacity of NMC811 in an NMC/graphite full cell, 5th cycle",
      "value": 172.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "mAh/g",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC811",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.2 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "cycle": 5,
        "units": "per gram of NMC"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling (not a half-cell); capacity per gram of NMC",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.0 V upper cutoff the same table gives 131.9 mAh/g for NMC811.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "o2_release_onset",
      "label": "Oxygen release onset, NMC111 (half cell)",
      "value": 4.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "V vs Li/Li+",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC111",
        "cell": "NMC/Li half cell",
        "electrolyte": "LP57 (1 M LiPF6 in EC:EMC 3:7)",
        "rate": "0.05 C charge to 5 V",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "state_of_charge": "about 80 to 90% for the three compositions together; the paper names about 80% explicitly only for NMC111"
      },
      "method": "On-line electrochemical mass spectrometry (OEMS)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Read from the paper's Fig. 5b; the paper states the onset follows the last high-voltage dQ/dV feature, not a fixed potential.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Results (Fig. 5b); Discussion",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "o2_release_onset",
      "label": "Oxygen release onset, NMC622 (half cell)",
      "value": 4.7,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "V vs Li/Li+",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC622",
        "cell": "NMC/Li half cell",
        "electrolyte": "LP57 (1 M LiPF6 in EC:EMC 3:7)",
        "rate": "0.05 C charge to 5 V",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "state_of_charge": "about 80 to 90% for the three compositions together; the paper names about 80% explicitly only for NMC111"
      },
      "method": "On-line electrochemical mass spectrometry (OEMS)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Results (Fig. 5b); Discussion",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "o2_release_onset",
      "label": "Oxygen release onset, NMC811 (half cell)",
      "value": 4.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "V vs Li/Li+",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC811",
        "cell": "NMC/Li half cell",
        "electrolyte": "LP57 (1 M LiPF6 in EC:EMC 3:7)",
        "rate": "0.05 C charge to 5 V",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "state_of_charge": "about 80 to 90%"
      },
      "method": "On-line electrochemical mass spectrometry (OEMS)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The paper reports that all three materials release oxygen from the particle surface, and that the release stays in the surface-near region as a disordered spinel or rock-salt layer.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Results (Fig. 5b); Discussion",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "volume_change",
      "value": 7.8,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "Li[Ni0.90Co0.05Mn0.05]O2 (NCM90)",
        "direction": "unit-cell volume shrinks",
        "region": "charging beyond about 4.2 V (H2 to H3 phase transition)",
        "comparison": "LiNiO2 shrinks 10%"
      },
      "method": "In-situ diffraction, as reported by Kim et al. and summarised in the review",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "A Ni-rich composition, not NMC111. The review also says the c-axis shrinks 5.7% (NCM90) and 7.9% (LiNiO2) and that the volume change grows as the Ni fraction rises.",
      "source": "ahangari2024",
      "where": "Section on structural degradation (paragraph on Kim et al., Fig. 6a-c)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Advancements and Challenges in High-Capacity Ni-Rich Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.3390/ma17040801 (Materials 17, 801, PMC10890397)",
        "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890397/",
        "year": 2024,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_runaway_onset",
      "label": "Self-heating onset, 2.2 Ah 18650 NMC111 cell",
      "value": 91,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "degC",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC111, Li(Ni0.33Mn0.33Co0.33)O2",
        "state_of_charge": "100%",
        "cell": "commercial 2.2 Ah 18650 NMC/graphite",
        "method": "es-ARC, heated 30 to 250 degC in 5 degC steps",
        "detection": "0.01 degC/min"
      },
      "method": "Accelerating-rate calorimetry",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Table 1 lists 91 degC; the text says the onset was about 90 degC for all three cell types tested (LMO, LFP, NMC111).",
      "source": "lei2017",
      "where": "Table 1 (\"This work\") and Section 3.2",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Experimental Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 18650 Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells Using an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter",
        "id": "doi:10.3390/batteries3020014 (Batteries 3, 14)",
        "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3020014",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_runaway_max_temp",
      "label": "Maximum temperature reached, 2.2 Ah 18650 NMC111 cell",
      "value": 731,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "degC",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC111",
        "state_of_charge": "100%",
        "cell": "commercial 2.2 Ah 18650 NMC/graphite",
        "method": "es-ARC",
        "comparison": "LFP 1.1 Ah cell reached 259 degC"
      },
      "method": "Accelerating-rate calorimetry",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Maximum self-heating rate was 7580 degC/min in the text (7577 in Table 3). The authors point out the NMC cell has twice the nominal capacity of the LFP cell.",
      "source": "lei2017",
      "where": "Section 3.2, Table 3",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Experimental Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 18650 Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells Using an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter",
        "id": "doi:10.3390/batteries3020014 (Batteries 3, 14)",
        "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3020014",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cycle_life",
      "value": 300,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "cycles",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC111",
        "capacity_retained": "94% (cycle 5 to cycle 300)",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.4 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "electrolyte": "LP57"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.2 V cutoff NMC111 retained 93%; at 4.6 V only 42%.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I; Results (cycling)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cycle_life",
      "value": 300,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "cycles",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC622",
        "capacity_retained": "94% (cycle 5 to cycle 300)",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.4 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "electrolyte": "LP57"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.2 V cutoff NMC622 retained 95%; at 4.6 V only 39%.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I; Results (cycling)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cycle_life",
      "value": 300,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "cycles",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "composition": "NMC811",
        "capacity_retained": "66% (cycle 5 to cycle 300)",
        "cell": "NMC/graphite full cell",
        "upper_cutoff": "4.2 V",
        "lower_cutoff": "3.0 V",
        "rate": "1 C",
        "temperature": "25 degC",
        "electrolyte": "LP57"
      },
      "method": "Full-cell cycling",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "At a 4.0 V cutoff NMC811 retained 90%; at 4.1 V 77%. The authors conclude stable cycling is possible up to 4.4 V for NMC111 and NMC622 but only up to 4.0 V for NMC811.",
      "source": "jung2017",
      "where": "Table I; Abstract",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
        "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
        "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cold_capacity",
      "value": 70,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "% of room-temperature capacity",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "cell": "Quallion pouch cells, about 4 Ah",
        "cathode": "believed by the report's authors to be NMC (0.33:0.33:0.33 Ni:Mn:Co); not confirmed in the report",
        "temperature": "-20 degC vs room temperature",
        "discharge": "C/2 to a 2.0 V cutoff",
        "electrolyte": "two JPL low-temperature electrolytes (the baseline Quallion electrolyte did as well down to -40 degC)"
      },
      "method": "Cell discharge tests at low temperature (JPL)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The report gives about 70%, 60%, 40% and 25% of the room-temperature value at -20, -30, -40 and -50 degC. At -50 degC the baseline-electrolyte cell was non-operational.",
      "source": "nasa-tm2010",
      "where": "Volume II, Quallion Pouch Cells section, p. 112 of 206 (text under Figs. 6 to 10)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Program: Generic Safety, Handling and Qualification Guidelines for Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Batteries, Volume II",
        "id": "NASA/TM-2010-216727/Volume II; NESC-RP-08-75; NTRS 20100028067",
        "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20100028067",
        "year": 2010,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "public domain (NASA)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cycle_life",
      "label": "Cycling at 60 degC, Quallion pouch cell with baseline electrolyte",
      "value": 20,
      "value_high": 30,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "cycles",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "cell": "Quallion pouch cell, about 4 Ah",
        "cathode": "believed by the report's authors to be NMC (0.33:0.33:0.33 Ni:Mn:Co); not confirmed in the report",
        "temperature": "60 degC",
        "charge": "4.1 V with taper",
        "electrolyte": "Quallion baseline electrolyte (composition unknown)"
      },
      "method": "Accelerated high-temperature cycling (JPL)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The report says the cell survived barely 20 to 30 cycles and the low-temperature-electrolyte cell failed right away. The authors point to electrolyte oxidation and possible internal pressure build-up, and say no single cause can be assigned.",
      "source": "nasa-tm2010",
      "where": "Volume II, High Temperature Cycling, pp. 115-116 of 206",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Program: Generic Safety, Handling and Qualification Guidelines for Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Batteries, Volume II",
        "id": "NASA/TM-2010-216727/Volume II; NESC-RP-08-75; NTRS 20100028067",
        "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20100028067",
        "year": 2010,
        "kind": "report",
        "license": "public domain (NASA)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Air storage (moisture and CO2), Ni-rich NCM",
      "headline": "In air, nickel-rich powders form surface residues that cost capacity at high voltage.",
      "effect": "Lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate impurities form on the surface during preparation and storage because Ni3+ slowly and spontaneously reduces to Ni2+. At high voltage these residues decompose and cost capacity; the review also says they react with LiPF6 to form HF.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "material": "Ni-rich NCM (review text; exact compositions and humidity not given)"
      },
      "source": "ahangari2024",
      "where": "Section on surface residual lithium and gas evolution (paragraphs on LiOH/Li2CO3)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Carbonate electrolyte with LiPF6 (transition-metal dissolution)",
      "headline": "Transition metals dissolve into the electrolyte, more at high cutoff voltage, and reach the graphite.",
      "effect": "Transition metals dissolve out of NCM into the electrolyte, more at high cutoff voltage; Wachs et al. saw the metal level in the electrolyte rise over time for NCM811, and Mn dissolution was detected for NCM111 at high cutoff. The review says HF attacks the electrode surface. Dissolved metals reach the graphite surface layer.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "materials": "NCM811 and NCM111 (as summarised in the review)",
        "trigger": "high operating cutoff voltage"
      },
      "source": "ahangari2024",
      "where": "Section on transition-metal dissolution (Wachs et al.; Gilbert et al.)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Humid laboratory air (about 25 degC, about 50% humidity)",
      "headline": "Cathodes opened in humid air corroded and lost capacity quickly, far more than the LFP cathode in the same study.",
      "effect": "NMC532/LMO cathodes taken from used Sony US18650V3 cells and opened in humid air developed a compact film of corrosion products over the original granular surface, lost manganese, and then showed an immediate and drastic capacity drop in coin cells. The paper says this cathode was much less resilient than the LFP one it tested alongside.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "exposure": "cells opened in air at about 25 degC and about 50% humidity, then vacuum dried at 80 degC overnight; exposure time not stated",
        "cathode": "blend of 83.6% NMC532 and 16.4% LiMn2O4 (measured by ICP-OES), not pure NMC",
        "test": "coin cells with 1.0 M LiPF6 in EC/DMC, C/10, 3.2 to 4.25 V"
      },
      "source": "mele2025",
      "where": "Sections 2.2, 2.3, 3.2 and 4 (Conclusions)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Aluminium current collector (after humid-air exposure) and in LiPF6 electrolyte",
      "headline": "After humid-air exposure the aluminium current collector showed signs of corrosion.",
      "effect": "In the humidity-damaged NMC532/LMO electrodes, element maps showed more fluorine and aluminium and less manganese; the authors read the aluminium as coming from current-collector corrosion and the fluorine from HF formed when the cell was opened. Separately, a paper on aluminium passivation says LiPF6 electrolytes passivate aluminium at present-day operating potentials but still corrode current collectors at the higher potentials where high-potential cathodes operate.",
      "rating": "unknown",
      "conditions": {
        "humid_air_case": "cells opened at about 25 degC and about 50% humidity",
        "cathode": "NMC532/LMO blend",
        "electrolyte": "LiPF6 in organic carbonates"
      },
      "source": "mele2025",
      "where": "Section 3.2 (EDS mapping, Figure 7g); general statement from theivaprakasam2018, Introduction"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "PubChem lists mixed-notification classifications for this CAS entry. The most common codes across the notifications are fatal if inhaled, may cause cancer, may damage fertility or the unborn child, causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure, may cause allergic skin reaction or asthma-like symptoms, and harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects. These depend on supplier, nickel and cobalt content and impurities, so check the SDS for the exact powder.",
        "ghs": [
          "H330",
          "H350",
          "H360",
          "H372",
          "H317",
          "H334",
          "H412"
        ],
        "source": "pubchem-nmc",
        "where": "Safety and Hazards, GHS Classification (CID 134693645; 119, 108 and 50 reports in three groups)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Supplier safety data sheet for LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) powder, CAS 346417-97-8 (Stanford Advanced Materials, rev. July 2018): skin sensitisation category 1A (H317) and carcinogenicity category 2 (H351); signal word Warning. Section 8 lists an ACGIH TWA of 0.02 mg/m3 for the component. This is a milder classification than the most common PubChem notifications, so classification clearly differs between suppliers.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H351"
        ],
        "source": "sam-nmc811-sds",
        "where": "Sections 2, 3 and 8"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Oxygen release from charged NMC",
        "trigger": "Charging high, or heating a delithiated cathode",
        "consequence": "At high delithiation NMC and NCA release oxygen as Ni4+ is reduced on heating; the oxygen can react with flammable electrolyte and lead to thermal runaway. In half cells at 25 degC the oxygen release began near 4.7 V (NMC111, NMC622) and 4.3 V (NMC811) vs Li.",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "jung2017",
        "where": "Results (OEMS, Fig. 5b); ahangari2024 Section on thermal stability"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Thermal runaway of a charged NMC111 cell",
        "trigger": "es-ARC heating of a 2.2 Ah 18650 cell at 100% state of charge",
        "consequence": "Peak temperature 731 degC and a self-heating rate up to 7580 degC/min, compared with 259 degC and below 3 degC/min for the LFP cell tested the same way.",
        "severity": "high",
        "source": "lei2017",
        "where": "Section 3.2, Table 3"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "More than 90% of the CO and CO2 formed during cycling at high voltage came from released lattice oxygen reacting with the electrolyte, so oxygen release shows up as gas generation inside the cell.",
        "affects": "Cell pressure and swelling",
        "source": "jung2017",
        "where": "Discussion, connection between released O2 and CO/CO2"
      },
      {
        "text": "Dissolved transition metals deposit in the graphite anode's surface layer, which the review links to higher cell impedance and trapped lithium.",
        "affects": "Graphite anode",
        "source": "ahangari2024",
        "where": "Section on transition-metal dissolution (Gilbert et al. model)"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "SDS for NMC811 powder: avoid contact with skin and eyes, avoid dust and aerosols, provide exhaust ventilation where dust forms, keep the container tightly closed in a dry, well-ventilated place; its label statements include 'store locked up' and wear protective gloves. Fire products listed are nickel, lithium, cobalt and manganese oxides.",
        "source": "sam-nmc811-sds",
        "where": "Sections 2, 5 and 7"
      },
      {
        "text": "Residual lithium compounds on Ni-rich powder react with slurry components during mixing and can gel the NMP binder solution, which makes coating on aluminium foil difficult; washing is used to remove them.",
        "source": "geldasa2022",
        "where": "Section on residual lithium"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Limit the upper charge cutoff: stable cycling with graphite was found up to 4.4 V for NMC111 and NMC622 but only to 4.0 V for NMC811.",
        "source": "jung2017",
        "where": "Abstract; Table I"
      },
      {
        "text": "The review, citing Bak et al., judges NCM532 the best compromise of thermal stability and capacity among the compositions studied; higher Mn in the surface raises thermal stability.",
        "source": "ahangari2024",
        "where": "Section on thermal stability of NCM cathodes"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "batteries",
      "device": "Cathode in lithium-ion cells for electric vehicles",
      "example": "A review of Ni-rich NCM cathodes names electric vehicles as the main application that drives their use and the problems that hold them back.",
      "source": "ahangari2024",
      "where": "Opening text of the review (electric vehicle challenge)"
    },
    {
      "application": "batteries",
      "device": "Cathode in lithium-ion cells for mobile devices",
      "example": "Wikipedia says NMC materials are commonly used in lithium-ion batteries for mobile devices and electric vehicles.",
      "source": "wiki-nmc",
      "where": "Lead paragraph"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Lithium",
      "abundance": "20 ppm in the Earth's crust (USGS table of crustal abundances, citing Jefferson Science Associates, 2014)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Australia",
          "share_percent": 31.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 21.4,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Chile",
          "share_percent": 19.3,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Zimbabwe",
          "share_percent": 9.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Argentina",
          "share_percent": 7.9,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (Regulation (EU) 2024/1252, as shown on the European Commission page)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: construction of lithium battery recycling plants continued throughout 2025, with automobile companies and battery recyclers partnering to supply battery materials.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics, greases and manufactured glass (the examples it gives are for primary batteries, greases and ceramics, not lithium-ion cathodes)."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-lithium",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e; shares calculated by Space Mushroom against the 290,000 t world total, which excludes U.S. output); Recycling; Substitutes. Abundance: USGS PP 1802-A Table A1 (p. A7). Lists: USGS and European Commission pages (see sources)."
    },
    {
      "subject": "Nickel",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "New Caledonia",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (Regulation (EU) 2024/1252, as shown on the European Commission page)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS (U.S. figures): nickel recovered from scrap was about 60% of apparent consumption in 2025, mostly nickel in stainless-steel scrap; the chapter does not give a battery-recycling rate.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS substitutes text covers stainless steels, specialty steels and titanium alloys, not battery cathodes."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-nickel",
      "where": "World Mine Production table, 2025e (world total 3,900,000 t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes. EU page shows nickel as a strategic raw material that does not meet the critical thresholds but is on the list."
    },
    {
      "subject": "Manganese",
      "abundance": "950 ppm in the Earth's crust (USGS table of crustal abundances, citing Jefferson Science Associates, 2014)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 38,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Gabon",
          "share_percent": 25,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Ghana",
          "share_percent": 10,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Australia",
          "share_percent": 8,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (Regulation (EU) 2024/1252, as shown on the European Commission page)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: manganese is recycled incidentally in ferrous and nonferrous scrap; scrap recovery specifically for manganese was negligible.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-manganese",
      "where": "World Mine Production table (manganese content, 2025e; world total 20,000 thousand t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes. Abundance: USGS PP 1802-A Table A1."
    },
    {
      "subject": "Cobalt",
      "abundance": "25 ppm in the Earth's crust (USGS table of crustal abundances, citing Jefferson Science Associates, 2014)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Congo (Kinshasa)",
          "share_percent": 73,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 14,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (Regulation (EU) 2024/1252, as shown on the European Commission page)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS (U.S. figure): the cobalt content of purchased scrap was 25% of estimated cobalt consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: the cobalt content of lithium-ion batteries was being decreased, and cobalt-free substitutes that use iron and phosphorus held significant market share in China."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-cobalt",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues (73% and 14% are the USGS's own stated shares of 2025 world mine production); Recycling; Substitutes. Abundance: USGS PP 1802-A Table A1. Congo (Kinshasa) share: the USGS text states 73%, while its table gives 230,000 of 310,000 t, which is 74.2%."
    }
  ],
  "media": [
    {
      "file": "/media/lithium/nmc-1.jpg",
      "caption": "Cutaway diagram of an NMC lithium-ion cell.",
      "shows": "Aluminium current collector with NMC oxide cathode, separator, electrolyte, graphite anode and copper current collector, with lithium-ion flow during charging and discharging.",
      "conditions": "Schematic illustration, not a measurement",
      "alt": "Diagram of a battery: orange aluminium collector and NMC oxide layer on the left, grey porous separator in the middle, graphite and blue copper collector on the right, arrows showing lithium-ion transport.",
      "credit": "U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO-26-108687, Figure 2)",
      "license": "Public domain (U.S. government work)",
      "license_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_2-_Rechargeable_lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide_(NMC)_battery_(55534980512).jpg",
      "source_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_2-_Rechargeable_lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide_(NMC)_battery_(55534980512).jpg"
    },
    {
      "file": "/media/lithium/nmc-2.jpg",
      "caption": "NCM811 powder particles under a scanning electron microscope.",
      "shows": "Near-round NCM811 (LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2) microspheres, with a few collapsed or hollow shells.",
      "conditions": "SEM, 5.00 kV, x20.0k, 0.5 um scale bar; powder labelled as made by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis in the file name",
      "alt": "Grey electron-microscope image of many smooth, round particles of different sizes packed together, a few cup-shaped or crumpled.",
      "credit": "Altynay.Kaiyrgali (Wikimedia Commons)",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0",
      "license_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
      "source_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SEM_of_spherical_NCM_by_USP.jpg"
    },
    {
      "file": "/media/lithium/nmc-3.jpg",
      "caption": "NCM811 powder with many hollow, ring-shaped particles.",
      "shows": "A wide field of NCM811 particles; many are hollow or partly collapsed shells that look like rings or cups.",
      "conditions": "SEM, 5.00 kV, x5.00k, 1 um scale bar",
      "alt": "Grey electron-microscope image of a dense field of small round and ring-shaped particles, many with a hollow centre.",
      "credit": "Altynay.Kaiyrgali (Wikimedia Commons)",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0",
      "license_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
      "source_url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NCM_donut_galaxy_hollow_spheres_(SEM).jpg"
    }
  ],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Stanford Advanced Materials safety data sheet: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2, CAS 346417-97-8 (rev. July 2018)",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1690966042-21-lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide.pdf",
      "year": 2018
    },
    {
      "title": "NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Program: Generic Safety, Handling and Qualification Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Batteries, Volume II (NASA/TM-2010-216727)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20100028067",
      "year": 2010
    },
    {
      "title": "PubChem: Cobalt lithium manganese nickel oxide (CID 134693645), GHS classification summary",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/134693645",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
      "year": 2017
    },
    {
      "title": "Advancements and Challenges in High-Capacity Ni-Rich Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries (open access)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890397/",
      "year": 2024
    },
    {
      "title": "Experimental Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 18650 Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells Using an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (open access)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3020014",
      "year": 2017
    },
    {
      "title": "Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Wikipedia)",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxides"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No sourced average voltage, crystal density or electronic conductivity for NMC with stated conditions.",
    "No named spacecraft or mission using NMC cells confirmed from a source. The only space-related data are NASA/JPL ground tests on Quallion pouch cells whose cathode the report only says it believes is NMC (0.33:0.33:0.33).",
    "No vacuum, radiation or flight result for NMC cells found; the NASA report says thermal-vacuum cycling of those cells had only been initiated and gives no result.",
    "No NMC-specific aluminium-corrosion test with stated conditions; the only evidence is an EDS observation on an NMC532/LMO blend after humid-air opening plus a general statement about LiPF6 electrolytes.",
    "Crustal abundance of nickel not found in a source we could open.",
    "DSC/ARC data on charged NMC powder (Bak et al. 2014) could not be opened; the Golubkov et al. 2014 comparison of NMC and LFP cells could not be opened either.",
    "Volume change is given only for a Ni-rich composition (Ni 0.90), not for NMC111, NMC622 or NMC811.",
    "The theoretical capacity (about 275 mAh/g) is a general NCM figure from a review, not computed for each composition.",
    "SDS hazard classes differ between suppliers and from PubChem's aggregated entry; the one SDS opened is for NMC811 only."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "NMC (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, LiNiₓMnᵧCo_zO₂) is a family of layered-oxide cathodes with the α-NaFeO₂-type structure (hexagonal setting, space group R-3m). The numbers in a name such as NMC111, NMC622 or NMC811 give the nickel:manganese:cobalt ratio. Raising the nickel fraction increases the capacity per gram, but the sources collected here show that nickel-rich compositions also release oxygen from the charged material at a lower voltage, which makes a cell heat faster and hotter when it fails. NMC therefore sits at the high-energy end of the trade that LFP makes in the opposite direction.",
    "uses": [],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Capacity in cells",
        "line": "The theoretical specific capacity of layered nickel-manganese-cobalt oxides is as high as about 275 mAh/g, which would require removing all the lithium and is not possible in practice. In NMC/graphite full cells cycled at 1 C and 25 °C, the capacity per gram of NMC was 162.8 mAh/g for NMC111 and 177.8 mAh/g for NMC622 at a 4.4 V cutoff, and 172.5 mAh/g for NMC811 at a 4.2 V cutoff.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "Up to 177.8 mAh/g"
      },
      {
        "label": "Oxygen release",
        "line": "In half cells at 25 °C, oxygen release from the charged material began near 4.7 V for NMC111 and NMC622 and near 4.3 V for NMC811, versus Li/Li⁺. The more nickel, the lower the voltage at which release begins.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "4.3 to 4.7 V"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal behavior",
        "line": "A charged commercial 2.2 Ah NMC111 cell began to heat itself at about 91 °C in an accelerating-rate calorimetry test and reached 731 °C at up to 7,580 °C/min. The LFP cell tested the same way peaked at 259 °C. The authors note that the NMC cell holds twice the nominal capacity.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "Peaked at 731 °C"
      },
      {
        "label": "Cycle life",
        "line": "Cycled against graphite at 1 C and 25 °C with a 4.4 V cutoff, NMC111 and NMC622 each retained 94% of their capacity between cycle 5 and cycle 300. NMC811 retained 66% at a 4.2 V cutoff and 90% at 4.0 V. At 4.6 V, NMC111 retained only 42%.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "94% after 300 cycles"
      },
      {
        "label": "Low temperature",
        "line": "Pouch cells of about 4 Ah, which the report's authors believe to contain NMC but did not confirm, delivered about 70% of their room-temperature capacity at -20 °C, 60% at -30 °C, 40% at -40 °C and 25% at -50 °C.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "About 70% at -20 °C"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "NMC offers more capacity per gram than LFP, about 275 mAh/g in theory against 170 mAh/g. The cost is heat tolerance. Charged NMC releases oxygen, and in the one side-by-side test collected here the NMC111 cell peaked at 731 °C against 259 °C for the LFP cell. The table compares NMC with the other cathodes in the collection.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Theoretical capacity",
        "benchmark": "theoretical_capacity",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "O2 release onset",
        "benchmark": "o2_release_onset",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Volume change",
        "benchmark": "volume_change",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [],
    "good_for": [
      "High capacity per gram, highest in the nickel-rich versions.",
      "A tunable family. Composition trades capacity against stability, and a review citing Bak et al. judges NMC532 the best compromise of thermal stability and capacity among the compositions it studied."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Oxygen release from the charged material begins at a lower voltage as nickel rises, about 4.3 V for NMC811 against 4.7 V for NMC111, and the oxygen can feed thermal runaway.",
      "Nickel-rich NMC811 is the least stable to cycle at high cutoff voltage. It retained 66% after 300 cycles at 4.2 V against 94% for NMC111 and NMC622 at 4.4 V.",
      "Powder hazards are significant and depend on the supplier. Check the safety data sheet of the exact powder."
    ],
    "verdict": "NMC is the high-energy choice. It stores more charge per gram than LFP, and the price is heat: charged NMC releases oxygen, and the tests collected here show it failing far hotter.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "NMC is a layered oxide with one lithium, one oxygen-rich lattice and three metals: nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn) and cobalt (Co). The general formula is LiNixMnyCozO2 with x + y + z = 1, and the three digits in the name give the metal ratio. NMC111 has one third of each metal, NMC532 has 0.5 nickel, 0.3 manganese and 0.2 cobalt, NMC622 has 0.6, 0.2 and 0.2, and NMC811 has 0.8, 0.1 and 0.1. It is made by co-precipitation: metal salt solutions are mixed with a chelating agent so mixed nickel, manganese and cobalt hydroxide or carbonate particles form, then they are mixed with a lithium source and calcined (heated) at high temperature. A sol-gel route, which makes a gel from metal and lithium salts and then calcines it in two stages, is the other common method.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Lithium",
          "symbol": "Li",
          "role": "The mobile species that moves in and out of the layers as the cell charges and discharges.",
          "atoms": 1
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "Adds capacity per gram; more nickel means more capacity but less heat tolerance."
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Structural element that stays in a stable oxidation state while the cell cycles."
        },
        {
          "name": "Cobalt",
          "symbol": "Co",
          "role": "Helps the layered structure hold together; cobalt content is being reduced because of cost."
        },
        {
          "name": "Oxygen",
          "symbol": "O",
          "role": "Forms the oxide lattice with the metals.",
          "atoms": 2
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The classification of NMC powders is mixed and, for some powders, serious. The safety data sheet of the exact powder should be checked.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Database entries",
            "line": "Across PubChem notifications for this CAS entry, the most common hazard codes are fatal if inhaled, may cause cancer, may damage fertility or the unborn child, causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure, may cause allergic skin reaction or asthma-like symptoms, and harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects."
          },
          {
            "label": "A supplier sheet",
            "line": "A supplier safety data sheet for NMC811 powder (Stanford Advanced Materials, 2018) is milder: skin sensitisation category 1A (H317) and carcinogenicity category 2 (H351), with the signal word Warning and an ACGIH exposure limit of 0.02 mg/m³ for the component. Classification therefore differs between suppliers and depends on nickel and cobalt content and impurities."
          },
          {
            "label": "Dust and contact",
            "line": "Avoid dust and aerosols and contact with skin and eyes, and use exhaust ventilation where dust forms. The label statements include 'store locked up' and wear protective gloves."
          },
          {
            "label": "In a fire",
            "line": "The fire products listed are nickel, lithium, cobalt and manganese oxides."
          }
        ],
        "level": 3,
        "verdict": "Mixed, some serious classifications"
      },
      {
        "title": "If a cell overheats",
        "lead": "These results come from laboratory tests, not from incidents in the field.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "A charged NMC111 cell",
            "line": "A commercial 2.2 Ah 18650 NMC/graphite cell at 100% state of charge was heated from 30 to 250 °C in 5 °C steps (es-ARC). It began to heat itself at about 91 °C and reached 731 °C at up to 7,580 °C/min. The LFP cell tested the same way peaked at 259 °C and stayed below 3 °C/min. The NMC cell holds twice the nominal capacity."
          },
          {
            "label": "Oxygen release",
            "line": "At high delithiation, NMC and NCA release oxygen as Ni⁴⁺ is reduced on heating. The oxygen can react with the flammable electrolyte and lead to thermal runaway. In half cells at 25 °C, release began near 4.7 V for NMC111 and NMC622 and near 4.3 V for NMC811 versus Li/Li⁺."
          },
          {
            "label": "Gas in the cell",
            "line": "More than 90% of the CO and CO₂ formed during cycling at high voltage came from released lattice oxygen reacting with the electrolyte, so oxygen release shows up as gas generation inside the cell."
          },
          {
            "label": "Metals on the anode",
            "line": "Dissolved transition metals deposit in the graphite anode's surface layer, which the review links to higher cell impedance and trapped lithium."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Storage",
            "line": "Keep the container tightly closed in a dry, well-ventilated place."
          },
          {
            "label": "Air exposure",
            "line": "Nickel-rich powders form lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate on the surface in air, because Ni³⁺ slowly and spontaneously reduces to Ni²⁺. These residues cost capacity at high voltage and can gel the NMP binder solution during mixing, so washing is used to remove them."
          },
          {
            "label": "Charge limit",
            "line": "Limit the upper charge cutoff. Stable cycling with graphite was found up to 4.4 V for NMC111 and NMC622 but only to 4.0 V for NMC811."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-16",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 15,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 2,
    "note": "Re-read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-16: 15 of 15 benchmark values match their cited source; 0 could not be opened; 0 did not match."
  },
  "sources": {
    "jung2017": {
      "title": "Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries",
      "id": "doi:10.1149/2.0021707jes (J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1361)",
      "url": "https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0021707jes",
      "year": 2017,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0"
    },
    "ahangari2024": {
      "title": "Advancements and Challenges in High-Capacity Ni-Rich Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries",
      "id": "doi:10.3390/ma17040801 (Materials 17, 801, PMC10890397)",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890397/",
      "year": 2024,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0"
    },
    "geldasa2022": {
      "title": "Identifying surface degradation, mechanical failure, and thermal instability phenomena of high energy density Ni-rich NCM cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries - a review",
      "id": "doi:10.1039/d1ra08401a (RSC Advances 12, PMC8982025)",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8982025/",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY-NC 3.0"
    },
    "lei2017": {
      "title": "Experimental Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 18650 Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells Using an Accelerating Rate Calorimeter",
      "id": "doi:10.3390/batteries3020014 (Batteries 3, 14)",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3020014",
      "year": 2017,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0"
    },
    "pubchem-nmc": {
      "title": "PubChem compound record, Cobalt lithium manganese nickel oxide (CID 134693645)",
      "id": "CID 134693645; CAS 346417-97-8",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/134693645",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "public domain (NCBI)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-lithium": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Lithium",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lithium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "mele2025": {
      "title": "Raman Spectroscopy of Practical LIB Cathodes: A Study of Humidity-Induced Degradation",
      "id": "doi:10.3390/molecules30163448 (Molecules 30, 3448, PMC12388750)",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12388750/",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0"
    },
    "theivaprakasam2018": {
      "title": "Passivation behaviour of aluminium current collector in ionic liquid alkyl carbonate (hybrid) electrolytes",
      "id": "doi:10.1038/s41529-018-0033-6 (npj Materials Degradation 2, 13)",
      "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41529-018-0033-6",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0"
    },
    "nasa-tm2010": {
      "title": "NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Program: Generic Safety, Handling and Qualification Guidelines for Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Batteries, Volume II",
      "id": "NASA/TM-2010-216727/Volume II; NESC-RP-08-75; NTRS 20100028067",
      "url": "https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20100028067",
      "year": 2010,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (NASA)"
    },
    "sam-nmc811-sds": {
      "title": "Safety Data Sheet: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (Stanford Advanced Materials)",
      "id": "revision July 2018; CAS 346417-97-8",
      "url": "https://samaterials.com/tds/1690966042-21-lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide.pdf",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-nickel": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-manganese": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Manganese",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-manganese.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-cobalt": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Cobalt",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cobalt.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-pp1802a": {
      "title": "Critical Mineral Resources of the United States - An Introduction (Professional Paper 1802-A), Table A1, crustal abundances",
      "id": "USGS PP 1802-A",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1802/a/pp1802a.pdf",
      "year": 2017,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-crit2025": {
      "title": "About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals (USGS, final list of 60 minerals)",
      "id": "Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals, November 2025",
      "url": "https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "ec-crm": {
      "title": "Critical raw materials (European Commission, list of 34 critical raw materials under Regulation (EU) 2024/1252)",
      "id": "Regulation (EU) 2024/1252",
      "url": "https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en",
      "year": 2024,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "European Commission web page"
    },
    "wiki-nmc": {
      "title": "Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Wikipedia, composition, naming, synthesis and uses)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxides",
      "kind": "web"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/nmc/"
}