{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "lead-solder-alloys",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "low-melting-metals-and-solders",
  "name": "Lead alloys other than antimonial lead (Pb-Sn-Ag, Pb-Sn-Sb, Pb-Bi, Pb-Se)",
  "abbreviation": "Pb alloys",
  "role": "lead-bearing solders (Pb-Sn-Ag, Pb-Ag-Sn, Pb-Sn-Sb), a lead-bismuth eutectic coolant alloy, and lead selenide",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "heavy-metals",
  "summary": "This profile covers the lead alloys that are not lead-antimony and not the plain tin-lead solders. Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 is a eutectic solder that AIM lists at 179 degC. The Pb-97.5/Ag-1.5/Sn-1 high-temperature solder is printed by two suppliers with a solidus and liquidus both at 309 degC. A Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder carries a melting range of about 183 to 190 degC and about 50 W/m K conductivity. Lead-bismuth eutectic is 44.5 % lead and 55.5 % bismuth (Wikipedia). Lead selenide is a rock-salt compound with a density of 8100 kg/m3 and a melting point of 1078 degC (WebElements). Every lead alloy in this group is toxic: the US NIOSH limit is 0.050 mg/m3 as an eight-hour average for lead. The tin-lead solders are described in solder-sn-pb, and antimonial lead is described in antimonial-lead.\n",
  "best_for": "Solder joints that need a single, defined melting point and a high-temperature joint (the Pb-Ag-Sn alloy melts at 309 degC), where RoHS compliance is not required",
  "weakest_at": "Lead toxicity and the regulatory limits that follow from it, and the lack of a sourced lead-bismuth density or melting point in this profile; pure-tin finishes that replace these solders grow tin whiskers",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder (62 % tin, 36 % lead, 2 % silver by weight); Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 solder (97.5 % lead, 1.5 % silver, 1 % tin by weight, as printed by Lucas-Milhaupt); Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder (about 60 % tin, 39 % lead, 1 % antimony); Pb-Bi eutectic (44.5 % lead, 55.5 % bismuth); PbSe (lead selenide, one lead and one selenium per formula unit)",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "aim-sn62",
    "where": "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 Typical Alloy Composition block (Sn 62.0, Pb 36.0, Ag 2.0); Pb-Ag-Sn composition from Lucas-Milhaupt Nominal Composition line; Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 from the Goodfellow page; Pb-Bi from the Wikipedia introduction; PbSe from the WebElements page"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "electronics-and-chips"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point, Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 eutectic (AIM)",
      "value": 179,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2",
        "basis": "eutectic, one melting point printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aim-sn62",
      "where": "Features: Liquidus 179°C (354°F); Description: eutectic alloy with a melting point of 179°C; Typical Melting Temperature block",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIM Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder alloy technical data sheet",
        "id": "AIM Electropure, document rev NF4",
        "url": "https://aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-files/alloy_sn62-pb36-ag2_tds.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting range, Sn62Pb36Ag02 (Kester table)",
      "value": 179,
      "value_high": 189,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn62Pb36Ag02 as printed in the Kester table",
        "basis": "solidus and liquidus columns"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a soft-solder property table (Kester, 2005 copy)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The Kester table gives a liquidus 10 degC above the AIM eutectic figure for the row it prints as Sn62Pb36Ag02. The range is kept as printed, and the AIM eutectic figure is the one used in the summary.",
      "source": "kester",
      "where": "Table row Sn62Pb36Ag02: solidus 179 C, liquidus 189 C (columns 'Solidus' and 'Liquidus', degC)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Technical Data on Soft Solders (Kester alloy property table)",
        "id": "Kester, soft solder alloy properties table (copy dated 08 Dec 2005)",
        "url": "https://hallaweb.jlab.org/tech/Detectors/public_html/manuals/data_sheets-manuals/J-L/K/kester/Alloy%2520Properties%2520(08Dec05).pdf",
        "year": 2005,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer table, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Solidus and liquidus, Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 (Lucas-Milhaupt)",
      "value": 309,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 as printed by the supplier (Nominal Composition: Lead 97.50, Silver 1.50, Tin 1.00)",
        "basis": "solidus and liquidus both printed as 309 degC (588 degF), so the alloy behaves as a eutectic"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a supplier product page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "lucas-pb-ag",
      "where": "Solidus and Liquidus lines (both 588 °F, 309 °C)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Lucas-Milhaupt product page, 97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn solder",
        "id": "Lucas-Milhaupt",
        "url": "https://www.lucasmilhaupt.com/EN/Products/97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn.htm",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "max_brazing_temperature",
      "label": "Maximum recommended brazing temperature, Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1",
      "value": 364,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 as printed by the supplier",
        "basis": "supplier's maximum recommended brazing temperature"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a supplier product page (the name is not in property-canon; it is a supplier-specific temperature)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "lucas-pb-ag",
      "where": "Max Recommended Brazing Temperature line (688 °F, 364 °C)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Lucas-Milhaupt product page, 97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn solder",
        "id": "Lucas-Milhaupt",
        "url": "https://www.lucasmilhaupt.com/EN/Products/97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn.htm",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Specific gravity, Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 (Kester table)",
      "value": 11.28,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn1Pb97.5Ag1.5 as printed in the Kester table",
        "basis": "Specific Gravity column (no unit printed; the number is a pure ratio)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a soft-solder property table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "kester",
      "where": "Table row Sn1Pb97.5Ag1.5: Specific Gravity column (11.28)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Technical Data on Soft Solders (Kester alloy property table)",
        "id": "Kester, soft solder alloy properties table (copy dated 08 Dec 2005)",
        "url": "https://hallaweb.jlab.org/tech/Detectors/public_html/manuals/data_sheets-manuals/J-L/K/kester/Alloy%2520Properties%2520(08Dec05).pdf",
        "year": 2005,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer table, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, Sn63/Pb37 eutectic (AIM)",
      "value": 8.4,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn63/Pb37 eutectic",
        "temperature": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet (the sheet also prints 0.303 lb/in3)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aimtek-6337",
      "where": "Density line: 0.303 lb./in³ (8.40 g/cm³)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK High Purity 63% Tin/37% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-63-37-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, Sn60/Pb40 (AIM)",
      "value": 8.49,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb40 nominal composition",
        "temperature": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet (the sheet also prints 0.3068 lb/in3)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aimtek-6040",
      "where": "Density line: 0.3068 lb./in³ (8.49 g/cm³)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK 60% Tin/40% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-60-40-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Specific weight, Sn60/Pb40 cored wire (Cynel-Unipress)",
      "value": 8.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60Pb40 (ISO 9453 designation)",
        "basis": "printed as approximately 8,50 g/cm3 on the sheet; written here as 8.5 with the approximate sign dropped"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
      "where": "Section 2.6 Specific weight (approximately 8,50 g/cm3)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
        "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
        "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, PbSe (lead selenide)",
      "value": 8100,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/m3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "compound": "PbSe, rock-salt structure",
        "temperature": "not stated on the page"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a reference database page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "webelements-pbse",
      "where": "Density: 8100 kg m-3 line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebElements: lead selenide (compound data)",
        "id": "WebElements, University of Sheffield",
        "url": "https://webelements.co.uk/compounds/lead/lead_selenide.html",
        "kind": "database",
        "license": "web database, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting point, PbSe (lead selenide)",
      "value": 1078,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "compound": "PbSe, rock-salt structure"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a reference database page",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "A second database lists 1088 degC, which this profile does not use because that page was not opened in this run.",
      "source": "webelements-pbse",
      "where": "Melting point: 1078°C line",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "WebElements: lead selenide (compound data)",
        "id": "WebElements, University of Sheffield",
        "url": "https://webelements.co.uk/compounds/lead/lead_selenide.html",
        "kind": "database",
        "license": "web database, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, Sn63/Pb37 eutectic (AIM)",
      "value": 43,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn63/Pb37 eutectic",
        "product_form": "not stated on the sheet",
        "test_method": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet (the sheet prints 6240 psi)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The sheet does not name the test standard, product form or temper, so treat it as indicative.",
      "source": "aimtek-6337",
      "where": "Tensile Strength block: 6240 psi (43 MPa)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK High Purity 63% Tin/37% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-63-37-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, Sn60/Pb40 (AIM)",
      "value": 44.13,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb40 nominal composition",
        "product_form": "not stated on the sheet",
        "test_method": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet (the sheet prints 6400 psi)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The Cynel sheet gives 535 kg/cm2 for the same alloy in a different product form (cored wire). The two sheets do not state the test method, so the difference is not resolved here.",
      "source": "aimtek-6040",
      "where": "Tensile Strength block: 6400 psi (44.13 MPa)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK 60% Tin/40% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-60-40-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength at break, Sn60/Pb40 cored wire (Cynel-Unipress)",
      "value": 535,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "kg/cm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60Pb40 (ISO 9453 designation)",
        "product_form": "cored solder wire",
        "test_method": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet in the unit the sheet uses",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
      "where": "Section 2.9: Tensile strength at break 535 kg/cm2",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
        "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
        "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, Pb97.5Ag1.5Sn1 (Kester table)",
      "value": 3600,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "psi",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn1Pb97.5Ag1.5 as printed in the Kester table",
        "test_method": "not stated in the table"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a soft-solder property table (Tensile Strength PSI column)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "kester",
      "where": "Table row Sn1Pb97.5Ag1.5: Tensile Strength PSI column (3600)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Technical Data on Soft Solders (Kester alloy property table)",
        "id": "Kester, soft solder alloy properties table (copy dated 08 Dec 2005)",
        "url": "https://hallaweb.jlab.org/tech/Detectors/public_html/manuals/data_sheets-manuals/J-L/K/kester/Alloy%2520Properties%2520(08Dec05).pdf",
        "year": 2005,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer table, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation at break, Sn60/Pb40 cored wire (Cynel-Unipress)",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60Pb40 (ISO 9453 designation)",
        "product_form": "cored solder wire",
        "test_method": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
      "where": "Section 2.10: Elongation at break 40%",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
        "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
        "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, Sn60/Pb40 cored wire (Cynel-Unipress)",
      "value": 49,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60Pb40 (ISO 9453 designation)",
        "temperature": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
      "where": "Section 2.8: Thermal conductivity 49 W/m·K",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
        "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
        "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 (Goodfellow)",
      "value": 50,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/m·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 as printed by the supplier",
        "basis": "printed as around 50 W/m·K (approximate)"
      },
      "method": "Approximate value printed on a materials information page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-pbsnsb",
      "where": "Electrical and thermal properties paragraph (around 50 W/m·K)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow: Tin/Lead/Antimony alloy material information",
        "id": "Goodfellow Metals",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/resources/tin-lead-antimony-alloy-material-information/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity, Sn63/Pb37 eutectic (AIM)",
      "value": 0.0000145,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "ohm-cm",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn63/Pb37 eutectic",
        "temperature": "not stated on the sheet"
      },
      "method": "Value printed on a manufacturer data sheet (printed as 1.45 x 10 -5 ohm-cm; written in decimal form)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aimtek-6337",
      "where": "Electrical Resistivity line: 1.45 x 10 -5 ohm-cm",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK High Purity 63% Tin/37% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-63-37-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity, Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 (Goodfellow)",
      "value": 12,
      "value_high": 14,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "μΩ·cm",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 as printed by the supplier",
        "temperature": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Range printed on a materials information page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "goodfellow-pbsnsb",
      "where": "Electrical and thermal properties paragraph (12–14 μΩ·cm)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow: Tin/Lead/Antimony alloy material information",
        "id": "Goodfellow Metals",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/resources/tin-lead-antimony-alloy-material-information/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting range, Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 (Goodfellow)",
      "value": 183,
      "value_high": 190,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 as printed by the supplier",
        "basis": "eutectic temperature printed as around 183 to 190 degC, described as a narrow melting range"
      },
      "method": "Range printed on a materials information page",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "A search listing for a different Pb-Sn-Sb solder (about 27.5 Sn, 71 Pb, 1.5 Sb) gives a 188 to 250 degC range. That listing was not opened in this run, so it is not used.",
      "source": "goodfellow-pbsnsb",
      "where": "Melting or eutectic temperature paragraph ('around 183–190 °C', 'a narrow melting range')",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Goodfellow: Tin/Lead/Antimony alloy material information",
        "id": "Goodfellow Metals",
        "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/resources/tin-lead-antimony-alloy-material-information/",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting range, Sn60/Pb40 cored wire (Cynel-Unipress)",
      "value": 183,
      "value_high": 190,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60Pb40 (ISO 9453 designation)",
        "product_form": "cored solder wire"
      },
      "method": "Range printed on a manufacturer data sheet (solidus/liquidus)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
      "where": "Section 2.5: Melting point (solidus/liquidus) 183/190 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
        "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
        "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting range, Sn60/Pb40 (AIM)",
      "value": 183,
      "value_high": 191,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "Sn60/Pb40 nominal composition"
      },
      "method": "Range printed on a manufacturer data sheet (solidus and liquidus)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aimtek-6040",
      "where": "Melting Temperature block: Solidus (Flow point) 361°F (183°C); Liquidus (Melt point) 376°F (191°C)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "AIMTEK 60% Tin/40% Lead Solder data sheet",
        "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
        "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-60-40-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
        "year": 2022,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Humid heat, 85 °C and 85 % relative humidity, no applied voltage, up to 1000 hours (tin corrosion under QFN packages on solder-paste boards)",
      "headline": "In an 85 °C and 85 % humidity test the 63/37 paste did not show the tin-corrosion failure seen with SAC305, which corroded faster.",
      "effect": "A Cookson Electronics and MSLCircuits study found tin corrosion products under QFN and large passive parts after 500 hours. The authors say flux chemistry had the greatest effect and that SAC305 corroded faster than 63Sn37Pb. Reflow conditions had almost no effect. The failure was not seen with the 63/37 paste used.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "exposure": "85 °C and 85 % RH, no applied voltage, readings at 250, 500, 750 and 1000 hours",
        "comparison": "SAC305 solder pastes on the same boards",
        "flux": "three solder-paste flux chemistries"
      },
      "source": "cookson-2010",
      "where": "Executive Summary; Introduction (63/37 paste bullet); Summary of MSLCircuits failure analysis"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Pure tin plating with no lead, such as connector pins and relays in space hardware",
      "headline": "Tin-lead solder is the only method the Aerospace Corporation review found to stop tin whiskers consistently.",
      "effect": "The review states that the only consistently demonstrated method of precluding tin whiskers is a minimum percentage of lead in the solder. A tin whisker can short two conductors at low voltage and high impedance; a short stays in place unless the current is high enough to fuse the whisker, generally more than 50 mA.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "literature review of tin-whisker mechanisms and mitigation; not a corrosion test of the solder itself"
      },
      "source": "barr2007",
      "where": "Section 1 (lead as the mitigation); Section 2 (short-circuit text)"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Lead is toxic. The NIOSH pocket guide gives a time-weighted average limit of 0.050 mg/m3 (8 hours) and an IDLH of 100 mg/m3 as Pb. Exposure can be by inhalation, ingestion, and skin or eye contact.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "niosh-lead",
        "where": "Exposure limits and exposure routes; Target Organs line (blood, central nervous system, kidneys among others)"
      },
      {
        "text": "The OSHA permissible exposure limit for lead is a time-weighted average of 0.050 mg/m3, which matches the NIOSH recommended limit.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "niosh-lead",
        "where": "OSHA PEL line (1910.1025, TWA 0.050 mg/m3)"
      },
      {
        "text": "The Sn60/Pb40 wire is classed as a professional-use product because of its lead content and cannot be sold to private consumers. The sheet does not state a GHS classification.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
        "where": "Section 1 (General characteristics)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Use with adequate ventilation and proper personal protective equipment. Do not dispose of hazardous materials in non-approved containers.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "aim-sn62",
        "where": "Safety block"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Tin whisker short circuit on pure tin plating (the failure that lead in solder prevents)",
        "trigger": "Pure tin plating with no lead, over time, with stress or in closely spaced circuits",
        "consequence": "Whiskers can short neighbouring conductors. The review says a short can stay in place indefinitely unless the current is high enough to fuse the whisker, generally more than 50 mA.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "barr2007",
        "where": "Section 2 (Problems metal whiskers can cause)"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Lead-free parts entering aerospace assemblies",
        "trigger": "Exemptions for high-reliability aerospace electronics that do not cover parts the supplier changed to lead-free without a new part number",
        "consequence": "The NASA review says the exemptions will not protect these assemblies from the introduction of lead-free parts, and that some suppliers switch to lead-free without changing part numbers or serial numbers.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "nasa-bok-2005",
        "where": "Introduction, paragraph on exemptions and part identification"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "Flux residues from the cored wire may remain on the joint after soldering. The sheet says they need not be removed, and recommends alcohol-based solvents if washing is needed.",
        "affects": "The soldered surface",
        "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
        "where": "Section 3 (SW26 flux)"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Store at room temperature in a dry place, out of reach of children.",
        "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
        "where": "Section 4.5 (Storage)"
      },
      {
        "text": "Recommended soldering tip temperature is 340 to 400 °C for the Sn60/Pb40 cored wire.",
        "source": "cynel-sn60pb40",
        "where": "Section 2.12"
      },
      {
        "text": "Use with adequate ventilation and proper personal protective equipment. Refer to the safety data sheet for emergency information.",
        "source": "aim-sn62",
        "where": "Safety block"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Specify a tin-lead alloy rather than pure tin plating where whisker growth matters. The Aerospace Corporation review calls a minimum lead content the only consistently demonstrated whisker preventer.",
        "source": "barr2007",
        "where": "Abstract and Section 1"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Tin",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Brazil",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Congo (Kinshasa)",
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: about 17,000 tons of tin from old and new scrap was recycled in 2025. Tin has not been mined or smelted in the United States since 1993.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: epoxy resins for solder; other substitutes listed are for cans, bronze, bearing metals and some chemicals."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-tin",
      "where": "Domestic Production and Use; Recycling; World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e, metric tons of tin content); Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Lead",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Australia",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "India",
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (lead added in the 2025 list)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: an estimated 1 million tons of secondary lead was produced in 2025, equal to 70% of apparent domestic consumption, nearly all from old scrap, mostly lead-acid batteries.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: tin has replaced lead in solder for potable water systems, and the electronics industry has moved toward lead-free solders."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-lead",
      "where": "Events, Trends and Issues (critical-list paragraph); World Mine Production and Reserves table (2025e, thousand metric tons of lead content); Recycling; Substitutes"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder alloy technical data sheet (AIM)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-files/alloy_sn62-pb36-ag2_tds.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "AIMTEK High Purity 63% Tin/37% Lead Solder data sheet",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-63-37-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022
    },
    {
      "title": "AIMTEK 60% Tin/40% Lead Solder data sheet",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-60-40-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022
    },
    {
      "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire (ISO 9453)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
      "year": 2022
    },
    {
      "title": "Technical Data on Soft Solders (Kester alloy property table)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://hallaweb.jlab.org/tech/Detectors/public_html/manuals/data_sheets-manuals/J-L/K/kester/Alloy%2520Properties%2520(08Dec05).pdf",
      "year": 2005
    },
    {
      "title": "Lucas-Milhaupt product page, 97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn solder",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.lucasmilhaupt.com/EN/Products/97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mitigating and Preventing the Growth of Tin and Other Metal Whiskers on Critical Hardware (The Aerospace Corporation)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker./reference/tech_papers/2007-barr-paper-mitigating-whiskers.pdf",
      "year": 2007
    },
    {
      "title": "Tin Corrosion under QFN Packages at Elevated Temperature and Humidity (Cookson / MSLCircuits)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E11%26S04_02.pdf",
      "year": 2010
    },
    {
      "title": "Lead-Free Soldering for Space Applications: Lead-Free Solder Body of Knowledge (NASA)",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://xdevs.com/doc/NASA/lead-free%20solder%20bok%20report%206-21-%202005.pdf",
      "year": 2005
    },
    {
      "title": "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards: Lead",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0368.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lead",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lead.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Tin",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tin.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "WebElements: lead selenide (compound data)",
      "type": "database",
      "url": "https://webelements.co.uk/compounds/lead/lead_selenide.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Goodfellow: Tin/Lead/Antimony alloy material information",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/resources/tin-lead-antimony-alloy-material-information/"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "Lead-bismuth eutectic melting point and density: not found in a source opened in this run. The OECD NEA handbook page returned HTTP 403, the Argonne LBE property page is blocked by a bot check, and the open Pb-Bi density paper (ISU) could not be reached. Wikipedia gives composition and a melting point, but the brief limits Wikipedia to composition and history, so no LBE property is recorded.",
    "The Pb-Bi composition percentages come from Wikipedia, which does not state whether they are atomic or weight percentages.",
    "1.5Sn-97.5Pb-1Ag as requested: the sources printed the alloy as 97.5Pb/1.5Ag/1Sn (Lucas-Milhaupt and Kester). The request's silver and tin values were not found in a source, so the printed composition is recorded.",
    "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2: no density, tensile strength or elongation was found in a source opened in this run. The Kester table row for this alloy prints a specific-gravity value that does not fit a tin-lead solder, so it was not used.",
    "Pb-Sn-Sb: only one source was opened (Goodfellow, a reseller). It gives composition and a range but no density or mechanical numbers. A search listing for another Pb-Sn-Sb solder was not opened and is not used.",
    "Lead selenide: density and melting point come from one database page (WebElements). No corrosion, hazard or supply data for PbSe were found in a source opened in this run, and no GHS classification was checked.",
    "Maximum recommended brazing temperature for the Pb-Ag-Sn alloy is recorded under a supplier-specific name (max_brazing_temperature), not a property in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
    "Tin supply: the USGS 2026 tin summary read in this run did not mention a critical-minerals list, so critical_lists is empty for tin. Bismuth and selenium supply (including the critical-mineral status of each) were not checked.",
    "No UNS, EN, AMS or ASTM designation for the Pb-Ag-Sn, Pb-Sn-Sb, Pb-Bi or PbSe grades was printed in a source read in this run; designations are left out. No ASTM or other designation for Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 was printed in a source read in this run.",
    "Hazard data rest on the NIOSH page and the supplier safety statements. No PubChem or SDS GHS classification was read for the lead alloys or PbSe in this run."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Tin-lead solders have a long track record in electronics, and this group covers the variants that a designer might specify when lead is still allowed. Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 gives a single melting point at 179 °C. The Pb-Ag-Sn alloy has a melting point near 309 °C, which makes it the high-melting option in this group. The Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder has a melting range of about 183 to 190 °C. The lead-bismuth and lead selenide entries are included for completeness; their key numbers were not found in a source opened in this run. The tin-lead solders themselves are described in solder-sn-pb, and antimonial lead, a battery and shielding alloy, is described in antimonial-lead.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Wave soldering and printed-circuit assembly",
        "line": "AIM lists Sn63/Pb37 as used for general soldering of copper and copper alloys and ferrous alloys, and states that the high-purity grade reduces dross by 12 to 18 %. The Sn60/Pb40 cored wire is sold for industrial electronics where RoHS compliance is not required."
      },
      {
        "where": "High-reliability and aerospace electronics",
        "line": "A NASA review of lead-free soldering says that high-reliability aerospace users still depend on tin-lead for assemblies, and that the exemptions for those assemblies do not protect them from lead-free parts entering the supply chain."
      },
      {
        "where": "Pb-Ag-Sn high-temperature joints",
        "line": "Lucas-Milhaupt lists the 97.5 % lead alloy with a solidus and liquidus both at 309 °C and a maximum recommended brazing temperature of 364 °C, so it is used where the joint must stay solid at a much higher temperature than the tin-lead eutectic."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Single melting point",
        "line": "The Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 alloy is a eutectic with one melting point at 179 °C (354 °F). A Sn62 Pb36 Ag02 row in the Kester table gives a 179 to 189 °C range instead, so the two sources do not agree on the top of the range.",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "179 °C"
      },
      {
        "label": "High-temperature solder",
        "line": "The Pb-Ag-Sn solder is printed with a solidus and liquidus both at 309 °C, and its supplier gives a maximum recommended brazing temperature of 364 °C.",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "309 °C"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "line": "The Sn63/Pb37 eutectic has a density of 8.40 g/cm3 (AIM). The Sn60/Pb40 alloy is 8.49 g/cm3 (AIM) and about 8.5 g/cm3 (Cynel-Unipress).",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "8.4 g/cm3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "The Sn63/Pb37 eutectic breaks at 43 MPa (6240 psi) per AIM, and the Sn60/Pb40 alloy at 44.13 MPa (6400 psi). Cynel gives 535 kg/cm2 for its Sn60/Pb40 cored wire. The sheets do not name the test method.",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "43 MPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "line": "The Sn60/Pb40 cored wire has a thermal conductivity of 49 W/m·K. Goodfellow gives around 50 W/m·K for its Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder.",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "49 W/m·K"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Compared with the tin-lead eutectic in solder-sn-pb, the silver-bearing Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder gives the same kind of single melting point at 179 °C, while the Pb-Ag-Sn high-temperature solder melts at 309 °C and has a specific gravity of 11.28, against 8.40 g/cm3 for the Sn63/Pb37 eutectic. The Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder has a melting range rather than a single point. Lead selenide is in a different class altogether: it is a rock-salt compound with a density of 8100 kg/m3 and a melting point of 1078 °C, and it is not used as a solder. The table compares the family on its melting point, density and tensile strength.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Melting point",
        "benchmark": "melting_point",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Tensile strength",
        "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Use ventilation and personal protective equipment. NIOSH sets the lead limit at 0.050 mg/m3 for an eight-hour average.",
      "Store the solder wire at room temperature in a dry place, out of reach of children.",
      "Solder at 340 to 400 °C with the Sn60/Pb40 cored wire, and do not dispose of hazardous materials in non-approved containers."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "A defined melting point. The Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 eutectic melts at 179 °C (AIM), with one value rather than a range.",
      "A high-temperature joint. The Pb-Ag-Sn alloy has a solidus and liquidus both at 309 °C (Lucas-Milhaupt).",
      "Whisker resistance. The Aerospace Corporation review says lead in the solder is the only consistently demonstrated whisker preventer."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Lead toxicity: the NIOSH limit is 0.050 mg/m3 as an eight-hour average. The Sn60/Pb40 wire is restricted to professional use.",
      "The sources disagree on some values. Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 has a 179 to 189 °C range in the Kester table and a single 179 °C eutectic from AIM, and the Sn60/Pb40 tensile strength is 44.13 MPa (AIM) against 535 kg/cm2 (Cynel).",
      "Lead-free rules: the NASA review says exemptions do not stop lead-free parts from reaching aerospace assemblies, so lead content cannot be assumed in a supply chain."
    ],
    "verdict": "Lead alloys still give the most defined melting points for tin-lead solder, but lead toxicity and lead-free rules limit where they can be used. Lead-bismuth and lead selenide need sources that were not available in this run.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 is a ternary solder alloy: tin, lead and silver melted together. It is a eutectic, so it has one melting point (179 °C, AIM). Other lead alloys in this profile are the Pb-Ag-Sn high-temperature solder (lead 97.5 %, silver 1.5 %, tin 1 %), the Sn60/Pb39/Sb1 solder, the lead-bismuth eutectic (lead 44.5 %, bismuth 55.5 %, as printed by Wikipedia) and lead selenide (PbSe), which is a compound rather than a solder.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Tin",
          "symbol": "Sn",
          "role": "The main metal of the solder. It wets copper and copper alloys well.",
          "share_percent": 62
        },
        {
          "name": "Lead",
          "symbol": "Pb",
          "role": "Lowers the melting point of the tin and gives the eutectic its single melting point.",
          "share_percent": 36
        },
        {
          "name": "Silver",
          "symbol": "Ag",
          "role": "Added in small amounts to the eutectic. The AIM sheet gives the typical composition as 2.0 % silver.",
          "share_percent": 2
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "Every alloy in this group contains lead, which NIOSH lists with a time-weighted average limit of 0.050 mg/m3 and an IDLH of 100 mg/m3 as Pb.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Exposure limits",
            "line": "The NIOSH and OSHA limit for an eight-hour average is 0.050 mg/m3 of lead. Target organs listed by NIOSH include the blood, the central nervous system and the kidneys."
          },
          {
            "label": "Use",
            "line": "The Sn60/Pb40 wire is sold for professional use only because of its lead content. The AIM sheet asks users to work with adequate ventilation and personal protective equipment."
          }
        ],
        "verdict": "Lead is toxic; limit exposure"
      },
      {
        "title": "In service",
        "lead": "Lead in the solder is the mitigation for tin whiskers. The Aerospace Corporation review says a minimum lead content is the only consistently demonstrated way to stop them.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Whisker shorts",
            "line": "A tin whisker can short neighbouring conductors at low voltage. Unless the current is above about 50 mA, the short can stay in place indefinitely."
          },
          {
            "label": "Aerospace exemptions",
            "line": "NASA states that exemptions for high-reliability aerospace electronics do not protect those assemblies from lead-free parts that suppliers introduce without changing part numbers."
          }
        ],
        "verdict": "Pure tin finishes grow whiskers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Storage",
            "line": "The Sn60/Pb40 sheet calls for storage at room temperature in a dry place, out of reach of children."
          },
          {
            "label": "Soldering",
            "line": "Recommended soldering tip temperature is 340 to 400 °C for the Sn60/Pb40 cored wire. The SW26 flux residues need not be removed, but alcohol-based solvents are recommended for washing."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-10-26",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 22,
    "unreachable": 2,
    "caveats": 3,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the data sheets, NASA, Aerospace Corporation, Cookson, USGS, NIOSH, Lucas-Milhaupt, Goodfellow and WebElements pages listed in sources. The LBE handbook and Argonne page could not be opened."
  },
  "sources": {
    "aim-sn62": {
      "title": "AIM Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder alloy technical data sheet",
      "id": "AIM Electropure, document rev NF4",
      "url": "https://aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-files/alloy_sn62-pb36-ag2_tds.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "aimtek-6337": {
      "title": "AIMTEK High Purity 63% Tin/37% Lead Solder data sheet",
      "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
      "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-63-37-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "aimtek-6040": {
      "title": "AIMTEK 60% Tin/40% Lead Solder data sheet",
      "id": "AIMTEK, Inc., Auburn MA",
      "url": "https://aimtek.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Aimtek-60-40-Tin-Lead-Solder-Technical-Data-Sheet.pdf",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "cynel-sn60pb40": {
      "title": "Cynel-Unipress technical data sheet, Sn60Pb40 cored solder wire with SW26 flux",
      "id": "Cynel-Unipress Sp. z o.o., Warsaw; ISO 9453:2014",
      "url": "https://ormix.lv/lv/catalog/showpdf/name/68ac979d42cb80508f9a5c4e8896ef9c.pdf",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "kester": {
      "title": "Technical Data on Soft Solders (Kester alloy property table)",
      "id": "Kester, soft solder alloy properties table (copy dated 08 Dec 2005)",
      "url": "https://hallaweb.jlab.org/tech/Detectors/public_html/manuals/data_sheets-manuals/J-L/K/kester/Alloy%2520Properties%2520(08Dec05).pdf",
      "year": 2005,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer table, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "lucas-pb-ag": {
      "title": "Lucas-Milhaupt product page, 97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn solder",
      "id": "Lucas-Milhaupt",
      "url": "https://www.lucasmilhaupt.com/EN/Products/97.5Pb1.5Ag1Sn.htm",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "goodfellow-pbsnsb": {
      "title": "Goodfellow: Tin/Lead/Antimony alloy material information",
      "id": "Goodfellow Metals",
      "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/usa/resources/tin-lead-antimony-alloy-material-information/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "supplier page, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "webelements-pbse": {
      "title": "WebElements: lead selenide (compound data)",
      "id": "WebElements, University of Sheffield",
      "url": "https://webelements.co.uk/compounds/lead/lead_selenide.html",
      "kind": "database",
      "license": "web database, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "barr2007": {
      "title": "Mitigating and Preventing the Growth of Tin and Other Metal Whiskers on Critical Hardware",
      "id": "Stephanie Barr, The Aerospace Corporation, 2007",
      "url": "https://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker./reference/tech_papers/2007-barr-paper-mitigating-whiskers.pdf",
      "year": 2007,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "copyright The Aerospace Corporation (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "cookson-2010": {
      "title": "Tin Corrosion under QFN Packages at Elevated Temperature and Humidity",
      "id": "K. Tellefsen et al., Cookson Electronics, IPC Midwest 2010",
      "url": "https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E11%26S04_02.pdf",
      "year": 2010,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "copyright of the authors (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "nasa-bok-2005": {
      "title": "Lead-Free Soldering for Space Applications: Lead-Free Solder Body of Knowledge (Kurt Kessel, NASA KSC)",
      "id": "NASA NEPP, April 2005 state of technology report (copy hosted on xdevs.com)",
      "url": "https://xdevs.com/doc/NASA/lead-free%20solder%20bok%20report%206-21-%202005.pdf",
      "year": 2005,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (NASA)"
    },
    "niosh-lead": {
      "title": "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards: Lead",
      "id": "NIOSH / CDC, npgd0368",
      "url": "https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0368.html",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "public domain (US government)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-lead": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Lead",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lead.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-tin": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Tin",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tin.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "wikipedia-lbe": {
      "title": "Lead-bismuth eutectic (Wikipedia; composition and history only)",
      "id": "Wikipedia contributors",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-bismuth_eutectic",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/lead-solder-alloys/"
}