{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "copper-nickel-c70600",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "copper-alloys",
  "name": "Copper-nickel 90/10 (UNS C70600, CuNi10Fe1Mn)",
  "abbreviation": "CuNi 90/10",
  "role": "seawater-resistant condenser and heat-exchanger alloy",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "copper-alloys",
  "summary": "Copper-nickel 90/10 (UNS C70600, also called CuNi10Fe1Mn) is a wrought copper alloy with about 10 % nickel and small iron and manganese additions. Aviva Metals gives its density as 8.94 gm/cm3 at 20 C and its electrical conductivity as 9 %IACS. A distributor page gives 9.1 %IACS and a thermal conductivity of 40 W/(m·K) with no temperature, while Aviva gives 45 W/m · oK at 20 C. Annealed (soft) strip has a yield strength of 105 to 205 MPa on the distributor page. In a laboratory immersion test in seawater at 30 C for 56 days, the corrosion current density fell to 1.056 µA/cm2, but a porous film still allowed pits.\n",
  "best_for": "Seawater condenser, heat-exchanger and salt-water piping service where copper-nickel with iron and manganese additions resists marine corrosion",
  "weakest_at": "Strength in the soft temper, where the distributor gives a yield strength of 105 MPa at the low end, and no space or vacuum test record for this alloy in the sources read",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Copper alloy with Cu balance, Ni 9.0 to 11.0, Fe 1.0 to 1.8, Mn max 1.0, Pb max 0.05, Zn max 1.0 (wt%); nominal CuNi10Fe1Mn (CDA composition table, Copper-Nickel 10 %)",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "C70600",
        "source": "cda-wrought-cu-ni",
        "where": "UNS # column, row Copper-Nickel, 10 %"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN",
        "code": "2.0872",
        "source": "aviva-c70600",
        "where": "Standards row, 'DIN 2.0872'"
      },
      {
        "system": "DIN",
        "code": "CuNi10Fe 1Mn",
        "note": "DIN 17664 name",
        "source": "aviva-c70600",
        "where": "Equivalencies table, row DIN17664"
      },
      {
        "system": "EN name",
        "code": "CW352H",
        "note": "EN 12449 CW number, not the 1.xxxx material number",
        "source": "aviva-c70600",
        "where": "Equivalencies table, row EN12449"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "B171",
        "note": "plate for tube plates and related products",
        "source": "anchorbronze-c70600",
        "where": "Product name line, 'ASTM B171'"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "B122",
        "source": "jtc-c70600",
        "where": "Title line 'UNS C70600 Material, ASTM B111M, B122, B151M, B466M' and Standard References"
      },
      {
        "system": "Trade name",
        "code": "CDA 706",
        "note": "Copper Development Association alloy number",
        "source": "anchorbronze-c70600",
        "where": "Product name line, 'CDA 706'"
      }
    ],
    "source": "cda-wrought-cu-ni",
    "where": "Row C70600, Copper-Nickel 10 %, of the CDA Standard Designation for Wrought Copper Alloys (revision May 13, 2026); the same row lists UNS C70600 in the UNS # column"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "thermal-control",
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, UNS C70600 distributor table",
      "value": 8.9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "UNS C70600",
        "temperature": "not stated on the page",
        "unit_in_source": "8.9 g/cm³"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor physical-properties table; the page says its data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "UNS C70600 Material Properties, Physical Properties table, row Density",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, datasheet metric column",
      "value": 8.94,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C",
        "unit_in_source": "8.94 gm/cm3 @ 20 C; specific gravity 8.94"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's metric physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Density, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_conductivity",
      "label": "Electrical conductivity, distributor table",
      "value": 9.1,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%IACS",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "temper": "not stated"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The Aviva datasheet gives 9 %IACS at 68 F, which is about the same. Neither page gives a temper.",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "UNS C70600 Material Properties, Physical Properties table, row Electrical Conductivity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_conductivity",
      "label": "Electrical conductivity, datasheet",
      "value": 9,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%IACS",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "68 F (20 C)",
        "metric_in_source": "0.053 MegaSiemens/cm @ 20 C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Electrical Conductivity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity, datasheet metric column",
      "value": 19.12,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "microhm-cm",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C",
        "unit_in_source": "19.12 microhm-cm @ 20 C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's metric physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Electrical Resistivity, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, distributor table",
      "value": 40,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated on the page"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Aviva gives 45.0 W/(m·K) at 20 C for the same grade. The two datasheets disagree by about 12 %, so both are recorded and neither is confirmed by a mill certificate.",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "UNS C70600 Material Properties, Physical Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity, datasheet metric column",
      "value": 45,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 C",
        "unit_in_source": "45.0 W/m · oK at 20 C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's metric physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Disagrees with the 40 W/(m·K) on the other distributor page; both are recorded.",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Thermal Conductivity, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity, distributor table",
      "value": 140,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated on the page"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Aviva gives 124000 MPa for the modulus of elasticity in tension. The two values differ by about 16 GPa and both are recorded.",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "UNS C70600 Material Properties, Physical Properties table, row Elastic Modulus",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Modulus of elasticity in tension, datasheet metric column",
      "value": 124000,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "124000 MPa; 18000 ksi"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's metric physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Disagrees with the 140 GPa printed on the other distributor page; both are recorded.",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Modulas of Elasticity in Tension, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "label": "Specific heat capacity",
      "value": 377.1,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/(kg·K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "293 K",
        "unit_in_source": "377.1 J/kg · oK at 293 K"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's metric physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Specific Heat Capacity, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Liquidus temperature",
      "value": 1149,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "unit_in_source": "1149 C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The same table gives a solidus of 1099 C. A general cupronickel summary (mwalloys) gives different solidus and liquidus ranges for cupronickels in general, not for 90/10 alone, so it is not recorded here.",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Melting Point - Liquidus, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Solidus temperature",
      "value": 1099,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "unit_in_source": "1099 C"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a distributor datasheet's physical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, row Melting Point - Solidus, metric column",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
        "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
        "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, soft (M) temper",
      "value": 105,
      "value_high": 205,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "soft (M)",
        "product_form": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "105-205 MPa"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table; the page says values vary with product form and state",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "A general cupronickel summary (mwalloys) gives 70 to 150 MPa for annealed 90/10 as a coarse range. The two ranges are not reconciled here.",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Yield Strength (σ0.2), column Soft (M)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, hard (H) temper",
      "value": 250,
      "value_high": 450,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "hard (H)",
        "product_form": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "250-450 MPa"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Yield Strength (σ0.2), column Hard (H)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, soft (M) temper",
      "value": 275,
      "value_high": 370,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "soft (M)",
        "product_form": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "275-370 MPa"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Tensile Strength (σb), column Soft (M)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, hard (H) temper",
      "value": 480,
      "value_high": 800,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "hard (H)",
        "product_form": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "480-800 MPa"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Tensile Strength (σb), column Hard (H)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation delta10, soft (M) temper",
      "value": 20,
      "value_high": 40,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "soft (M)",
        "gauge_length": "delta10 as printed (gauge not stated)",
        "unit_in_source": "20-40%"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Elongation (δ10), column Soft (M)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation delta10, hard (H) temper",
      "value": 2,
      "value_high": 8,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "hard (H)",
        "gauge_length": "delta10 as printed (gauge not stated)",
        "unit_in_source": "2-8%"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Elongation (δ10), column Hard (H)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "label": "Vickers hardness HV, soft (M) temper",
      "value": 80,
      "value_high": 130,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "HV",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "soft (M)",
        "unit_in_source": "80-130"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Vickers Hardness (HV), column Soft (M)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "vickers_hardness",
      "label": "Vickers hardness HV, hard (H) temper",
      "value": 150,
      "value_high": 300,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "HV",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temper": "hard (H)",
        "unit_in_source": "150-300"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a distributor mechanical-properties table",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, row Vickers Hardness (HV), column Hard (H)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
        "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "corrosion_current_density",
      "label": "Corrosion current density after 56 days in seawater with hydrogen peroxide (laboratory)",
      "value": 1.056,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "µA/cm2",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "electrolyte": "0.5 mol/L H2O2 mixed with sterilized natural seawater from Xiamen Bay",
        "temperature": "30 C immersion; 20 +/- 1 C electrochemical test",
        "time": "56 days",
        "specimen": "90/10 Cu-Ni sheet, 100 mm x 50 mm x 3 mm",
        "start_value_in_text": "3.812 µA/cm2"
      },
      "method": "Potentiodynamic polarization after immersion; the paper states the value in its electrochemical results text (Table 5 holds the fitted values)",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The corrosion solution contains an added oxidant (0.5 mol/L H2O2), so this is an accelerated laboratory result, not a pure seawater exposure. The paper says the value fell from 3.812 to 1.056 µA/cm2.",
      "source": "jin2019",
      "where": "Electrochemical results paragraph after Table 5 (polarization curves), and Conclusions",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Surface Characterization and Corrosion Behavior of 90/10 Copper-Nickel Alloy in Marine Environment (Jin et al.), Materials 12(11):1869",
        "id": "doi:10.3390/ma12111869; PMC6601285",
        "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6601285/",
        "year": 2019,
        "kind": "paper",
        "license": "CC BY 4.0 (open access, MDPI)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Seawater immersion, laboratory test (Xiamen Bay seawater, 30 C, 56 days)",
      "headline": "A porous oxide and chloride film forms on 90/10 in seawater; its corrosion current falls, but pits still form under the film.",
      "effect": "The corrosion product layer was mainly CuO, Cu2O and Cu(OH)2, with CuCl, CuCl2 and Cu2(OH)3Cl appearing later. The paper says the film was heterogeneous and fairly porous, which led to local corrosion. The corrosion current density fell from 3.812 to 1.056 µA/cm2 over 56 days.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "test": "immersion with added 0.5 mol/L H2O2 in sterilized natural seawater, 30 C, 56 days",
        "specimen": "90/10 Cu-Ni sheet"
      },
      "source": "jin2019",
      "where": "Abstract; Surface morphology and XPS sections; Conclusions"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Seawater and weak acids (distributor claim, no test conditions given)",
      "headline": "A distributor quotes a corrosion rate of 0.003 mm/a for C70600 in seawater, weak acids and saline solutions.",
      "effect": "The page says C70600 resists seawater, weak acids, saline solutions and high-temperature oxidation, with a corrosion rate of 0.003 mm/a. It gives no temperature, velocity, duration or test standard for that rate, so it is a claim, not a measured result.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "test": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "≤0.003 mm/a"
      },
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Core Advantages, item 1"
    },
    {
      "environment": "High flow velocity, impingement, sharp elbows and high turbulence",
      "headline": "Fast or turbulent seawater attacks 90/10 faster, through erosion-corrosion.",
      "effect": "A general cupronickel summary says that at high flow velocities or where impingement occurs (jets, sharp elbows, high turbulence), erosion-corrosion can raise attack rates. It says the modified 70/30 grades with iron and manganese resist impingement better than plain 70/30.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "general summary of copper-nickel seawater service; no 90/10 velocity limit is printed"
      },
      "source": "mwalloys-cupronickel",
      "where": "Section on velocity effects"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Strong oxidizing acids",
      "headline": "Weak acids and seawater are acceptable, but strong oxidizing acids are not.",
      "effect": "The distributor's FAQ says C70600 is suitable for weak acids and seawater but to avoid strong oxidizing acids, with concentrated nitric acid given as the example.",
      "rating": "moderate",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "distributor FAQ; no test data"
      },
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "FAQs, question 2"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "The Russel Metals safety data sheet for copper and copper alloys, which covers C70600, says that copper and copper alloys are an article and not hazardous in solid form. Cutting, milling, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials, and for those emitted products the sheet prints the signal word WARNING with Carcinogenicity Category 2 (may cause cancer) and Skin Sensitizer Category 1 (may cause allergic skin reaction).",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "russel-sds-cu",
        "where": "Section 2, Hazardous ingredients, classification block"
      },
      {
        "text": "The same sheet lists nickel at 0-30.0 % by weight in the base metal, and says IARC lists metallic nickel and alloys in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) and nickel compounds in Group 1 (confirmed human carcinogens).",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "russel-sds-cu",
        "where": "Section 3 base metal table; toxicology and carcinogenicity entries"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Pitting under a porous corrosion film in seawater",
        "trigger": "Long immersion in chloride-rich seawater with dissolved oxygen",
        "consequence": "The film thickens, becomes porous and detaches, so local pits and exfoliation form on the alloy. The laboratory test in Jin et al. was run with an added oxidant, so its rate is not a field rate.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "jin2019",
        "where": "Surface morphology and XPS sections; Conclusions"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Erosion-corrosion at high velocity",
        "trigger": "Jets, sharp elbows and high turbulence in seawater piping",
        "consequence": "Erosion-corrosion can raise local attack rates. No velocity limit for 90/10 is printed in the cited summary.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "mwalloys-cupronickel",
        "where": "Section on velocity effects"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Hot cracking during welding",
        "trigger": "Welding with an interpass temperature above 100 C",
        "consequence": "The distributor recommends TIG or laser welding with interpass temperature at or below 100 C to avoid hot cracking.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "jtc-c70600",
        "where": "Product Applications, Processing Guidelines, item 1"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "Dusts from grinding operations may burn if ignited, according to the copper and copper alloys safety data sheet.",
        "source": "russel-sds-cu",
        "where": "Section 5, specific hazards arising from the material"
      },
      {
        "text": "Hot working is done at 900 to 960 C, and stress-relief annealing at 650 to 750 C after cold work, according to the distributor's processing guidelines.",
        "source": "jtc-c70600",
        "where": "Processing Guidelines, item 2"
      },
      {
        "text": "Aviva prints its physical properties without a temper, while the distributor's mechanical values differ by temper (soft and hard), so the temper must be specified.",
        "source": "jtc-c70600",
        "where": "Mechanical Properties table, columns Soft (M) and Hard (H)"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Use TIG or laser welding with interpass temperature at or below 100 C, and a low-temperature anneal at 250 to 300 C after welding tubes, per the distributor's guidelines.",
        "source": "jtc-c70600",
        "where": "Processing Guidelines, item 1; FAQs, question 3"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "thermal-control",
      "device": "Condenser and heat-exchanger tubing, condenser plates, evaporator tubes",
      "example": "Aviva's typical-use list for C706 Copper Nickel 90/10 starts with Condenser Plates, Condensers, Weld Torch Tips, Heat Exchanger Tubes and Evaporator Tubes. A general cupronickel summary says 90/10 is widely used for condenser plates and tubes.",
      "source": "aviva-c70600",
      "where": "Typical Uses for C706 Copper Nickel 90/10, Industrial list; mwalloys summary, condenser plates and tubes"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Salt-water piping fittings, flanges and propeller sleeves",
      "example": "Anchor Bronze says C70600 is especially suited for condenser plates, salt water pipe fittings, salt water piping systems, flanges and propeller sleeves, and for marine saltwater environments.",
      "source": "anchorbronze-c70600",
      "where": "Product description paragraph"
    },
    {
      "application": "thermal-control",
      "device": "Marine and aerospace hydraulic and cooling lines (distributor list)",
      "example": "A distributor lists seawater desalination evaporator tubes, ship condensers, offshore platform components, petrochemical coolers and hydraulic system pipelines among its applications for C70600.",
      "source": "jtc-c70600",
      "where": "Product Applications, items 1 to 4"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Copper (mine production, 2025 estimate)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Chile",
          "share_percent": 23,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Congo (Kinshasa)",
          "share_percent": 13.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Peru",
          "share_percent": 11.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 7.8,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.7,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "U.S. Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals (copper added in 2025, per the USGS chapter)",
          "listed": true
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: copper recovered from scrap contributed about 30% of the U.S. copper supply, and brass and wire-rod mills took about 80% of the copper recovered from scrap.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: aluminum substitutes for copper in electrical equipment and power cable, and titanium and steel are used in heat exchangers."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-copper",
      "where": "World Mine and Refinery Production and Reserves table, mine production 2025e, world total 23,000 thousand t (shares calculated by Space Mushroom from Chile 5,300; Congo (Kinshasa) 3,200; Peru 2,700; China 1,800; Russia 1,300); Recycling; Substitutes; 2025 critical minerals list"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Nickel (mine production, 2025 estimate)",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 66.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Philippines",
          "share_percent": 6.9,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Russia",
          "share_percent": 5.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "New Caledonia",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 3.6,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: nickel recovered from scrap accounted for approximately 60% of apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: titanium alloys can substitute for nickel or nickel-base alloys in corrosive environments."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-nickel",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, mine production 2025e, world total 3,900,000 t of nickel content (shares calculated by Space Mushroom from Indonesia 2,600,000; Philippines 270,000; Russia 200,000; New Caledonia 140,000; Canada 140,000); Recycling; Substitutes"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "Aviva Metals: C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), physical properties, standards and equivalencies",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "JINTIAN COPPER: UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) material properties and applications",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Anchor Bronze: C70600 Copper-Nickel (90/10), CDA 706 product page",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.anchorbronze.com/c70600"
    },
    {
      "title": "CDA Standard Designation for Wrought Copper Alloys, Copper-Nickel Alloys C70000 to C73499 (revision May 13, 2026)",
      "type": "standard",
      "url": "https://datasheets.copper.org/wrought-copper-nickels.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Russel Metals safety data sheet: Copper and copper alloys (form SDS-03-2019, lists UNS C70600)",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://www.russelmetals.com/wp-content/uploads/sds-copper-and-alloys.pdf",
      "year": 2019
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Copper",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-copper.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Jin et al., Surface Characterization and Corrosion Behavior of 90/10 Copper-Nickel Alloy in Marine Environment, Materials 12(11):1869 (2019)",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6601285/",
      "year": 2019
    },
    {
      "title": "MWalloys: Copper Nickel Alloy: Properties, Grades (70/30 - 90/10), Applications",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://www.mwalloys.com/copper-nickel-alloy-properties-grades-70-30-90-10-applications/"
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No mill certificate or ASTM B171 or B122 minimum values were read. The strength rows are nominal ranges printed by distributors, and the two distributor pages give different modulus and thermal conductivity values, both recorded side by side.",
    "The coefficient of thermal expansion (17.1 x 10-6/°C over 20 to 300 °C on the Aviva and distributor pages) is printed with an exponent, so it is left out of the property rows.",
    "The distributor page lists 'EN: CW354H' against C70600, which conflicts with the Aviva equivalencies table (EN 12449 CW352H for 90/10); that CW354H entry is not used.",
    "The copper.org and CDA long-term seawater pages (archive.copper.org and copper.org) returned 401, 403 or access blocks in this run, so the long-term seawater corrosion rate in µm/yr was not recorded.",
    "The only seawater film and rate data read come from one laboratory test (Jin et al. 2019) that adds 0.5 mol/L H2O2 to the seawater; there is no open field exposure value for this profile.",
    "The PubChem GHS record for nickel was blocked by a reCAPTCHA in this run, so no GHS H-codes are recorded; the hazard entries rest on the Russel Metals safety data sheet.",
    "No space, vacuum, outgassing, radiation or flight result for C70600 was found in the sources read.",
    "The vickers_hardness and corrosion_current_density benchmark names are not in the canonical property list and are used as short names; the modulus disagreement is shown in two rows.",
    "Crustal abundance of copper and nickel and the share of copper in lunar or Martian regolith were not looked up.",
    "The melting ranges in the general cupronickel summary (mwalloys) are for cupronickels in general, not for 90/10, so they are not recorded as properties.",
    "Electrical resistivity and specific heat come from one distributor datasheet each; no second source for those was read."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Copper-nickel 90/10 (UNS C70600, CuNi10Fe1Mn) is a copper alloy with about 10 % nickel and small iron and manganese additions. It is chosen where copper must carry heat and resist seawater, as in condensers, heat exchangers and salt-water piping. Aviva gives a density of 8.94 gm/cm3 at 20 C and a thermal conductivity of 45 W/(m·K) at 20 C, while a second distributor gives 8.9 g/cm3 and 40 W/(m·K) with no temperature. The two distributors also disagree on the modulus, at 124000 MPa and 140 GPa. The sources read here give seawater and condenser service records for this grade, and none of them is a space test.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Condensers and heat exchangers",
        "line": "Aviva lists condenser plates, condenser tubes, heat exchanger tubes and evaporator tubes among the typical uses of the 90/10 grade. A general summary of cupronickel calls 90/10 widely used for condenser plates and tubes."
      },
      {
        "where": "Salt-water piping",
        "line": "Anchor Bronze says C70600 is especially suited for salt water pipe fittings, salt water piping systems, flanges and propeller sleeves, with resistance to marine saltwater environments."
      },
      {
        "where": "Marine and offshore equipment",
        "line": "A distributor lists seawater desalination evaporator tubes, ship condensers and offshore platform components among its applications for C70600. No space application is recorded in the sources read."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Carry heat",
        "line": "Aviva gives a thermal conductivity of 45 W/(m·K) at 20 C for the 90/10 grade. A second distributor gives 40 W/(m·K) without a temperature, so both values are recorded.",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "45 W/(m·K)"
      },
      {
        "label": "Carry current",
        "line": "Electrical conductivity is 9.1 %IACS on one distributor page and 9 %IACS at 68 F on Aviva. The alloy conducts far less electricity than pure copper, so it is used for heat exchange and marine service rather than for wiring.",
        "benchmark": "electrical_conductivity",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "9.1 %IACS"
      },
      {
        "label": "Weight",
        "line": "Density is 8.94 g/cm3 at 20 C on Aviva, and 8.9 g/cm3 on the distributor page without a temperature.",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "8.94 g/cm3"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "The modulus of elasticity is 124000 MPa on Aviva and 140 GPa on the distributor page, so it should be checked against a mill certificate before design use.",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "124000 MPa"
      },
      {
        "label": "Strength when soft",
        "line": "In the soft temper the distributor gives a yield strength of 105 to 205 MPa and a tensile strength of 275 to 370 MPa, stretching 20 to 40 %.",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "105 to 205 MPa yield"
      },
      {
        "label": "Strength when hard",
        "line": "In the hard temper the distributor gives a yield strength of 250 to 450 MPa and a tensile strength of 480 to 800 MPa, stretching only 2 to 8 %.",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "250 to 450 MPa yield"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Copper-nickel 90/10 is compared here only with its own sources, because no other grade's values were read in this run. The two distributor datasheets disagree by about 12 % on thermal conductivity (40 and 45 W/(m·K)) and by about 16 GPa on modulus (140 GPa and 124000 MPa). The USGS copper chapter names aluminum and titanium or steel as substitutes for copper in heat exchangers, but no density or conductivity value for those substitutes was taken from the same sources, so no ranking is given.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Thermal conductivity",
        "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Yield strength",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Specify the temper, because the distributor's strength values differ widely between the soft and hard tempers.",
      "Use TIG or laser welding with interpass temperature at or below 100 C.",
      "Wear a particulate or fume control when cutting, grinding or welding, because the emitted fume can carry nickel and copper."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Seawater service: distributor and lab sources both record good resistance of copper-nickel with iron and manganese additions in seawater.",
      "Heat exchange: 45 W/(m·K) at 20 C (Aviva), and it is the standard condenser and heat-exchanger tube material named by the sources."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Soft tubing is weak: 105 MPa yield at the low end in the soft temper.",
      "Fast or turbulent seawater attacks the alloy faster than still seawater, through erosion-corrosion.",
      "Welding and cutting fume can contain nickel, which the safety data sheet labels with a carcinogenicity category.",
      "The two distributor datasheets disagree on modulus and thermal conductivity, and no mill certificate was read."
    ],
    "verdict": "Copper-nickel 90/10 is a seawater-resistant copper alloy for condensers and heat exchangers, with about 10 % nickel and a soft-temper yield of 105 MPa at the low end. The sources agree on the marine use and disagree on modulus and thermal conductivity. No space test record was found.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "Copper-nickel 90/10 is a copper alloy in which nickel is the main alloying element at about 10 %, with small iron and manganese additions to keep the corrosion resistance (CDA composition table; Aviva datasheet). Hot working and annealing are the main processing steps, per the distributor's processing guidelines.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Copper",
          "symbol": "Cu",
          "role": "The base metal and the main conductor of heat and electricity in the alloy."
        },
        {
          "name": "Nickel",
          "symbol": "Ni",
          "role": "The main alloying element. The Jin et al. paper says nickel is incorporated into the Cu2O film and raises its corrosion resistance."
        },
        {
          "name": "Iron",
          "symbol": "Fe",
          "role": "Added to resist corrosion and impingement attack, per the cupronickel summary and the distributor."
        },
        {
          "name": "Manganese",
          "symbol": "Mn",
          "role": "Added alongside iron to keep the corrosion resistance, per the distributor."
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The alloy in solid form is treated as an article, not a hazardous substance, but cutting, grinding and welding can release hazardous fume from its nickel and copper.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "The solid alloy",
            "line": "The Russel Metals safety data sheet says copper and copper alloys are an article and not hazardous in solid form."
          },
          {
            "label": "Fume and dust",
            "line": "The same sheet says processing such as cutting, grinding, melting and welding can emit hazardous materials, with the signal word WARNING for those emitted products. Nickel is 0-30.0 % of the base metal by weight, and metallic nickel is IARC Group 2B."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Fume hazard when welded or cut"
      },
      {
        "title": "If it fails",
        "lead": "These failure routes come from the cited sources. The one lab corrosion result is an accelerated test with an added oxidant.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Pitting in seawater",
            "line": "In the Xiamen Bay laboratory test, a porous film formed and local pits developed after 56 days at 30 C, even as the corrosion current fell from 3.812 to 1.056 µA/cm2."
          },
          {
            "label": "Fast water",
            "line": "Erosion-corrosion can raise attack rates where seawater flows fast or is turbulent, such as at jets, sharp elbows or impingement points."
          },
          {
            "label": "Welding",
            "line": "The distributor recommends TIG or laser welding with interpass temperature at or below 100 C to avoid hot cracking."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Temper",
            "line": "The distributor gives a soft-temper yield strength of 105 to 205 MPa and a hard-temper yield strength of 250 to 450 MPa, so the temper must be specified."
          },
          {
            "label": "Dust",
            "line": "The safety data sheet says dusts and fines from processing may be ignitable."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-11-02",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 21,
    "unreachable": 2,
    "caveats": 4,
    "note": "Values read by an AI assistant on 2026-11-02 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. Unreachable in this run: archive.copper.org and copper.org (401, 403), PubChem nickel record (reCAPTCHA), Nickel Institute composition page (access check). Caveats: distributor strengths are nominal and ranges; the two distributors disagree on modulus and thermal conductivity; the corrosion current density comes from a lab test with added H2O2; supply shares are calculated from printed country values."
  },
  "sources": {
    "jtc-c70600": {
      "title": "UNS C70600 (CuNi10Fe1Mn) copper-nickel material properties page, JINTIAN COPPER distributor",
      "url": "https://en.jtcopper.com/c70600-copper.html",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced); says data are consolidated from industrial standards and may vary"
    },
    "aviva-c70600": {
      "title": "C70600 Copper Nickel (90/10), Aviva Metals datasheet (physical properties, standards and equivalencies)",
      "id": "UNS C70600; DIN 2.0872; DIN17664 CuNi10Fe 1Mn; EN12449 CW352H",
      "url": "https://avivametals.com/products/c70600-copper-nickel-90-10",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Distributor datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "anchorbronze-c70600": {
      "title": "C70600 Copper-Nickel (90/10), CDA 706, Anchor Bronze and Metals product page",
      "id": "CDA 706; CA70600; ASTM B171; ASME SB171; MIL-C-1726F",
      "url": "https://www.anchorbronze.com/c70600",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Distributor web page (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "mwalloys-cupronickel": {
      "title": "Copper Nickel Alloy: Properties, Grades (70/30 - 90/10), Applications, MWalloys",
      "url": "https://www.mwalloys.com/copper-nickel-alloy-properties-grades-70-30-90-10-applications/",
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "Supplier article (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "cda-wrought-cu-ni": {
      "title": "Standard Designation for Wrought Copper Alloys, Copper-Nickel Alloys (C70000 - C73499), Copper Development Association application datasheet",
      "id": "UNS C70600; Copper-Nickel, 10 %; revision May 13, 2026",
      "url": "https://datasheets.copper.org/wrought-copper-nickels.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "standard",
      "license": "Copper Development Association datasheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "russel-sds-cu": {
      "title": "Safety Data Sheet: Copper and Copper Alloys, Russel Metals Inc. (form SDS-03-2019, lists UNS C70600)",
      "id": "CAS 7440-02-0 (nickel); CAS 7440-50-8 (copper)",
      "url": "https://www.russelmetals.com/wp-content/uploads/sds-copper-and-alloys.pdf",
      "year": 2019,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "Supplier safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-copper": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Copper",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-copper.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-nickel": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-nickel.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "jin2019": {
      "title": "Surface Characterization and Corrosion Behavior of 90/10 Copper-Nickel Alloy in Marine Environment (Jin et al.), Materials 12(11):1869",
      "id": "doi:10.3390/ma12111869; PMC6601285",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6601285/",
      "year": 2019,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "CC BY 4.0 (open access, MDPI)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/copper-nickel-c70600/"
}