{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "cobalt-chromium-f75",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "cobalt-alloys",
  "name": "Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum ASTM F75 (CoCrMo)",
  "abbreviation": "CoCrMo",
  "role": "cobalt-base casting alloy for surgical implants, also sold as a powder for additive manufacturing",
  "category": "metals",
  "type": "nickel-superalloys",
  "summary": "ASTM F75 (UNS R30075, ISO 5832-4) is a cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy written as Co-28Cr-6Mo, with 27.0 to 30.0 wt% chromium and 5.0 to 7.0 wt% molybdenum. It is specified as a casting alloy for surgical implants. ICAST gives a minimum tensile strength of 655 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa for the cast grade. VDM sells a spherical powder of the same composition for additive manufacturing, with a density of 8.3 g/cm3 at 20 °C.\n",
  "best_for": "Wear- and corrosion-resistant metal parts that must stay strong at high temperature, such as implant parts and gas-turbine nozzles and vanes (VDM)",
  "weakest_at": "Only minimum strengths are given for the cast grade (ICAST); no cast-grade modulus, thermal conductivity or hot-strength value was found, and the additive values come from one datasheet",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "Co-28Cr-6Mo cobalt-base alloy. ASTM F75 composition limits in wt% (VDM Table 2): Co balance; Cr 27.0 to 30.0; Mo 5.0 to 7.0; Ni 0.50 max; Fe 0.75 max; C 0.35 max; Si 1.0 max; Mn 1.0 max; W 0.20 max; P 0.020 max; S 0.010 max; N 0.25 max; Al 0.10 max; Ti 0.10 max; B 0.010 max",
    "designations": [
      {
        "system": "UNS",
        "code": "R30075",
        "source": "icast-f75",
        "where": "Title block (Material ASTM F 75 R30075) and Cross Reference Table, row R30075 (UNS, USA)"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "F75",
        "source": "icast-f75",
        "where": "Title block: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants"
      },
      {
        "system": "ISO",
        "code": "5832-4",
        "source": "vdm-f75",
        "where": "Table 1 Designations, ISO row (5832-12 / 5832-4)"
      },
      {
        "system": "ASTM",
        "code": "F1537",
        "note": "wrought bar and billet standard; VDM lists it with F75 against its powder",
        "source": "vdm-f75",
        "where": "Table 1 Designations, ASTM row (F1537-11 / F75)"
      },
      {
        "system": "JIS",
        "code": "7402-1",
        "source": "icast-f75",
        "where": "Cross Reference Table, row 7402-1 (JIS, Japan)"
      }
    ],
    "source": "vdm-f75",
    "where": "Table 2, Chemical composition (%) according to ASTM F75 (VDM data sheet No. 2006); the ICAST composition table gives the same limits"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [],
    "applications": [
      "in-space-manufacturing",
      "propulsion-and-tanks",
      "structures"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Density, CoCr F75 powder for additive manufacturing",
      "value": 8.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "spherical powder, VDM Powder CoCr F75",
        "temperature": "20 °C (68 °F)",
        "unit_in_source": "8.3 g/cm3 at 20 °C (68 °F)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a producer's material data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Physical properties, Density",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "VDM Powder CoCr F75, Material Data Sheet No. 2006, Revision 03",
        "id": "VDM Metals International GmbH, November 2020; designations ISO 5832-12 / 5832-4, ASTM F1537-11 / F75, UNS R31538 / R30075",
        "url": "https://vdm-metals.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Data_Sheets/Data_Sheet_VDM_Powder_CoCr_F75.pdf",
        "year": 2020,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "label": "Melting range, CoCr F75 powder",
      "value": 1350,
      "value_high": 1430,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "VDM Powder CoCr F75",
        "unit_in_source": "1,350-1,430 °C (2,462-2,606 °F)"
      },
      "method": "Melting range printed in a producer's material data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Physical properties, Melting range",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "VDM Powder CoCr F75, Material Data Sheet No. 2006, Revision 03",
        "id": "VDM Metals International GmbH, November 2020; designations ISO 5832-12 / 5832-4, ASTM F1537-11 / F75, UNS R31538 / R30075",
        "url": "https://vdm-metals.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Data_Sheets/Data_Sheet_VDM_Powder_CoCr_F75.pdf",
        "year": 2020,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "oxygen_content",
      "label": "Oxygen content of CoCr F75 powder, upper limit",
      "value": 0.03,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "VDM Powder CoCr F75 spherical powder",
        "unit_in_source": "up to 0.03 %",
        "basis": "maximum, printed as up to"
      },
      "method": "Maximum printed in a producer's material data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "oxygen_content is not a canonical name in spores/property-canon.yaml; this snake_case name was chosen for the row.",
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Chemical composition text (low amounts of oxygen of up to 0.03 %) and Standard particle fractions table (oxygen content < 0.03 %)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "VDM Powder CoCr F75, Material Data Sheet No. 2006, Revision 03",
        "id": "VDM Metals International GmbH, November 2020; designations ISO 5832-12 / 5832-4, ASTM F1537-11 / F75, UNS R31538 / R30075",
        "url": "https://vdm-metals.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Data_Sheets/Data_Sheet_VDM_Powder_CoCr_F75.pdf",
        "year": 2020,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength, cast ASTM F75 minimum",
      "value": 450,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "ASTM F75 R30075 cast",
        "heat_treatment": "As-Cast or Annealing (the sheet does not separate them)",
        "basis": "minimum as printed"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a casting producer's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "icast-f75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties box, Yield Strength in Mpa 450 min.",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants",
        "id": "ICAST Alloys LLP material database; UNS R30075, JIS 7402-1",
        "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Tensile strength, cast ASTM F75 minimum",
      "value": 655,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "ASTM F75 R30075 cast",
        "heat_treatment": "As-Cast or Annealing (the sheet does not separate them)",
        "basis": "minimum as printed"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a casting producer's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "icast-f75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties box, Tensile Strength in Mpa 655 min.",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants",
        "id": "ICAST Alloys LLP material database; UNS R30075, JIS 7402-1",
        "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation, cast ASTM F75 minimum",
      "value": 8,
      "bound": "lower",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "ASTM F75 R30075 cast",
        "basis": "minimum as printed, gauge length not stated"
      },
      "method": "Minimum value printed in a casting producer's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "icast-f75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties box, Elongation in % 8 min.",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants",
        "id": "ICAST Alloys LLP material database; UNS R30075, JIS 7402-1",
        "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hardness_rockwell_c",
      "label": "Hardness, cast ASTM F75 range",
      "value": 25,
      "value_high": 35,
      "bound": "range",
      "unit": "HRC",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "grade": "ASTM F75 R30075 cast",
        "heat_treatment": "As-Cast or Annealing (the sheet does not separate them)"
      },
      "method": "Range printed in a casting producer's data sheet",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "hardness_rockwell_c is not a canonical name in spores/property-canon.yaml; this snake_case name was chosen for the row.",
      "source": "icast-f75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties box, Hardness in HRC 25 - 35",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants",
        "id": "ICAST Alloys LLP material database; UNS R30075, JIS 7402-1",
        "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf",
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "label": "Young's modulus, laser-sintered LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), after anneal",
      "value": 225,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "additive, laser-sintered on ProX DMP 320 (not cast), after anneal",
        "test": "ASTM E8M",
        "tolerance": "225 ± 5 GPa as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet for its additive material",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, Youngs modulus row, column AFTER ANNEAL",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "yield_strength",
      "label": "Yield strength Rp0.2, laser-sintered LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), horizontal, after anneal",
      "value": 540,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "additive, laser-sintered on ProX DMP 320 (not cast), horizontal direction XY, after anneal",
        "test": "ASTM E8M",
        "tolerance": "540 ± 30 MPa as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet for its additive material",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "The vertical build direction (Z) gives 520 ± 30 MPa in the same table, so build direction changes the value.",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, Yield strength Rp0.2% row, Horizontal direction XY, AFTER ANNEAL",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "ultimate_tensile_strength",
      "label": "Ultimate strength, laser-sintered LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), horizontal, after anneal",
      "value": 1030,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "MPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "additive, laser-sintered on ProX DMP 320 (not cast), horizontal direction XY, after anneal",
        "test": "ASTM E8M",
        "tolerance": "1030 ± 70 MPa as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet for its additive material",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, Ultimate strength row, Horizontal direction XY, AFTER ANNEAL",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elongation",
      "label": "Elongation at break, laser-sintered LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), horizontal, after anneal",
      "value": 29,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "form": "additive, laser-sintered on ProX DMP 320 (not cast), horizontal direction XY, after anneal",
        "test": "ASTM E8M",
        "tolerance": "29 ± 6 % as printed"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet for its additive material",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Mechanical Properties table, Elongation at break row, Horizontal direction XY, AFTER ANNEAL",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "label": "Absolute theoretical density, LaserForm CoCrF75 (A)",
      "value": 8.35,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/cm3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "absolute theoretical density; the datasheet's footnote 5 says values are based on literature",
        "unit_in_source": "8.35 g/cm³"
      },
      "method": "Theoretical density printed in a manufacturer datasheet, which marks it as based on literature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Physical Properties table, Density, Absolute theoretical row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "label": "Thermal conductivity at 20 °C, LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), literature basis",
      "value": 14,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W/(m.K)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "20 °C (120 °F)",
        "basis": "footnote 5 says values are based on literature",
        "unit_in_source": "14 W/(m.K)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet, which marks thermal values as based on literature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Thermal Properties table, Thermal conductivity row at 20 °C / 120 °F",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "label": "Coefficient of thermal expansion, 20 to 600 °C, LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), literature basis",
      "value": 14,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "µm/(m.°C)",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature_range": "20 to 600 °C",
        "basis": "footnote 5 says values are based on literature",
        "unit_in_source": "14 µm/(m.°C)"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet, which marks thermal values as based on literature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Thermal Properties table, CTE row, in the range of 20 to 600 °C",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity",
      "label": "Electrical resistivity, LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), literature basis",
      "value": 874,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "nΩ.m",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "footnote 5 says values are based on literature",
        "temperature": "not stated",
        "unit_in_source": "874 nΩ.m"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in a manufacturer datasheet, which marks electrical values as based on literature",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Electrical Properties table, Electrical resistivity row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
        "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
        "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
        "year": 2017,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Simulated body fluid, artificial saliva and fetal bovine serum (static immersion, CoCrMo alloy, not an F75 cast part)",
      "headline": "In simulated body fluid, the passive oxide layer on CoCrMo kept chromium release to a negligible amount, and cobalt was released most.",
      "effect": "Gurel et al. immersed a CoCrMo alloy (27 wt% Cr, 6 wt% Mo, balance Co) in artificial saliva, simulated body fluid (SBF) and fetal bovine serum (FBS). They report that the passive oxide layer limits chromium release into SBF to a negligible amount, and that cobalt gave the highest ion release in all three fluids. In FBS, chromium release could not be stopped after the second week.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "alloy": "CoCrMo medium entropy alloy, vacuum arc re-melted, 27 wt% Cr, 6 wt% Mo, balance Co (not ASTM F75 cast)",
        "temperature": "37 °C",
        "test": "static immersion with ICP-MS ion release after 1, 7, 14 and 28 days"
      },
      "source": "toker2022",
      "where": "Introduction; Materials and methods section 2; Results, ion release (Fig. 2)"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Air and high temperature",
      "headline": "The high chromium content gives the alloy very good general corrosion and temperature resistance, according to VDM.",
      "effect": "VDM states that, because of its high chromium content, CoCr F75 has very good general corrosion and temperature resistance. The datasheet gives no corrosion rate, test medium or duration.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "general statement in a producer's data sheet; no test medium or rate"
      },
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Corrosion resistance section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "Body fluids (passive film on the surface)",
      "headline": "3D Systems says the alloy forms a passive film that makes it corrosion resistant and biocompatible.",
      "effect": "The 3D Systems datasheet says cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys spontaneously form a protective passive film, which makes LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) both corrosion resistant and biocompatible. It gives no corrosion rate.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "product": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A), additive material",
        "basis": "qualitative statement in the material description"
      },
      "source": "3dsystems-cocrf75",
      "where": "Material Description, first page"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Implats safety data sheet for cobalt metal powder (CAS 7440-48-4; this is the powder, not the solid alloy) lists H302 harmful if swallowed, H334 may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled, H317 may cause an allergic skin reaction and H413 may cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic life. Its signal word is DANGER. Its label section gives H301 where its hazard section gives H302.",
        "ghs": [
          "H302",
          "H334",
          "H317",
          "H413"
        ],
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Section 2 hazard identification (health statements and label block)"
      },
      {
        "text": "The same sheet states that cobalt and cobalt compounds are classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B), and that over-exposure to cobalt can cause respiratory sensitisation with asthma-like symptoms.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Specific hazards text, and Health Hazards entries for inhalation and skin"
      },
      {
        "text": "The Ted Pella cobalt safety data sheet classifies cobalt in the form of pieces, pellets, shot, sheet, foil, rod, wire and target as 'Not classified as hazard'. That is pure cobalt, not the CoCrMo alloy, so it is recorded here only as the solid-metal classification the sheet gives.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "tedpella-cobalt",
        "where": "Section 2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture"
      },
      {
        "text": "The same Ted Pella sheet gives a different classification for the powder form, with H317, H334 and H351 and the signal word DANGER. Its H351 (suspected of causing cancer) differs from the Implats sheet, which gives H302 and H413 for cobalt powder, so the two sheets disagree on the hazard codes and both are recorded.",
        "ghs": [
          "H317",
          "H334",
          "H351"
        ],
        "source": "tedpella-cobalt",
        "where": "Section 2.3 Label elements for powder, Hazard Statements for powder"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Release of cobalt and chromium ions from the alloy in body fluids",
        "trigger": "Long immersion in artificial saliva, simulated body fluid or fetal bovine serum",
        "consequence": "Gurel et al. report that cobalt gave the highest ion release in all three fluids and that chromium release into FBS continued after the second week. The introduction says wear debris and metal ions have been associated with implant loosening. The paper gives no rate for release in an implant.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "toker2022",
        "where": "Introduction; Results, ion release (Fig. 2)"
      },
      {
        "mode": "Respiratory sensitisation from inhaled cobalt powder or dust",
        "trigger": "Breathing cobalt powder or dust during handling of the powder form",
        "consequence": "The cobalt powder sheet lists H334 (may cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties if inhaled) and says over-exposure can cause respiratory sensitisation with asthma-like symptoms.",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Section 2 health statements; Health Hazards, Inhalation"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "The cobalt powder sheet says cobalt has been reported to cause dermatitis and skin sensitisation, and that chronic over-exposure may result in 'Cobalt itch'.",
        "affects": "Workers who handle cobalt powder",
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Health Hazards, Skin"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "The cobalt powder sheet says to avoid breathing dust or fume (precautionary statement P261), and to use mechanical extraction ventilation where a dust inhalation hazard exists. It advises dust-proof goggles and PVC or rubber gloves.",
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Section 2 precautionary statements; Exposure Controls and PPE"
      },
      {
        "text": "The cobalt powder sheet says to store the powder in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area, away from oxidising agents, alkalis and acids.",
        "source": "implats-co-sds",
        "where": "Handling and Storage, Storage"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": []
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "in-space-manufacturing",
      "device": "Powder for laser powder-bed additive manufacturing",
      "example": "VDM sells its CoCr F75 powder as spherical particles in standard fractions of 15-53 and 53-150 µm, for additive manufacturing. 3D Systems sells LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) for its ProX DMP 320 printer.",
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Introduction; Availability and Standard particle fractions table"
    },
    {
      "application": "propulsion-and-tanks",
      "device": "Gas turbine nozzles and vanes",
      "example": "VDM lists high-temperature engineering uses for the alloy: gas nozzles and vanes for industrial gas turbines, and aero- and land-based gas turbines.",
      "source": "vdm-f75",
      "where": "Applications section"
    },
    {
      "application": "structures",
      "device": "Surgical implants: knee implants, metal-to-metal hip joints and dental prostheses (ground use, not space)",
      "example": "VDM lists knee implants, metal-to-metal hip joints and dental prosthetics as intended uses. ICAST lists the cast grade for surgical implants, and for valve, pump, general engineering and automotive parts.",
      "source": "icast-f75",
      "where": "VDM Applications section; ICAST Application line"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Cobalt",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "Congo (Kinshasa)",
          "share_percent": 73,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Indonesia",
          "share_percent": 14,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: in 2025, cobalt content of purchased scrap represented 25% of estimated cobalt consumption. In the United States, 51% of cobalt consumed was used in superalloys, mainly for aircraft gas turbine engines.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: substitution could result in a loss in product performance or increased cost; nickel-base alloys or ceramics are named as potential substitutes in jet engines."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-cobalt",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues (Congo (Kinshasa) 73% and Indonesia 14% of world total, 2025); Domestic Production and Use (51% superalloys); Recycling; Substitutes"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Chromium",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "South Africa",
          "share_percent": 45.1,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [],
      "recycling": "USGS: recycled chromium in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts accounted for 21% of apparent consumption in 2025.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic end use."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-chromium",
      "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e (South Africa 23,000 of 51,000 thousand t world total; the share of 45.1% is calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "VDM Powder CoCr F75, Material Data Sheet No. 2006, Revision 03 (VDM Metals International GmbH, November 2020)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://vdm-metals.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Data_Sheets/Data_Sheet_VDM_Powder_CoCr_F75.pdf",
      "year": 2020
    },
    {
      "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants (ICAST Alloys LLP)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems (PN 10101A, 03-17)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
      "year": 2017
    },
    {
      "title": "Gurel et al., From corrosion behavior to radiation response: A comprehensive biocompatibility assessment of a CoCrMo medium entropy alloy, Intermetallics 149 (2022) 107680",
      "type": "paper",
      "url": "https://tatum.ogu.edu.tr/Storage/tatum/Uploads/From-corrosion-behavior-to-radiation-response-A-comprehensive-Mine-Toker-2022.pdf",
      "year": 2022
    },
    {
      "title": "Hazard data sheet: Cobalt powder (Impala Base Metals Refinery, MAN-HDS-001, revision 19)",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://www.implats.co.za/pdf/material-safety-data-sheets/hazard-data-sheet-cobalt-powder.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cobalt.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Safety Data Sheet, Cobalt Products (Ted Pella, Inc.), pieces and powder classification",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://www.tedpella.com/SDS_html/29-27_9570_Cobalt_Products_sds.pdf",
      "year": 2017
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "The cast ASTM F75 values are minimums printed by ICAST. No cast-grade modulus, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion or electrical resistivity was found in a cast-grade source; the 3D Systems values are for laser-sintered parts and are labelled that way.",
    "No ASTM F75 standard text was opened, so the cast heat-treatment conditions (as-cast or annealed) are as printed by ICAST and not separated by temper.",
    "No safety data sheet for the solid CoCrMo alloy was read. The hazard classes are for cobalt metal powder (Implats, CAS 7440-48-4; Ted Pella) and do not apply to the solid alloy by default. The Ted Pella sheet covers pure cobalt pieces, not the CoCrMo alloy, and classes them as not hazardous.",
    "The cobalt powder sheet's label section gives H301 and its hazard section gives H302 for acute oral toxicity; both are recorded and not resolved.",
    "The Gurel et al. alloy is an arc-melted CoCrMo medium entropy alloy, not an ASTM F75 cast part. Its corrosion result is qualitative, and the ion release rates are shown only in a figure, so no rate is recorded.",
    "The IYTE paper on nitrogen-implanted CoCrMo could not be read in this run (the PDF returned no text), so its oxide film thickness is not recorded.",
    "No fatigue, creep, wear-rate, hot-strength or stress-rupture value for ASTM F75 was found in a source we could open.",
    "No vacuum, outgassing, radiation or flight result for CoCrMo was found. The 3D Systems datasheet is a ground material sheet, not a flight result.",
    "Hardness is recorded for the cast grade only (25 to 35 HRC, ICAST); the 3D Systems hardness values were not recorded. Hardness has no canonical name in spores/property-canon.yaml, so hardness_rockwell_c is used.",
    "Oxygen content is recorded for the VDM powder as an upper limit only. oxygen_content has no canonical name in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
    "Critical-mineral listings for cobalt and chromium (USGS 2025 list and EU list) were not read in this run, so critical_lists is empty.",
    "Molybdenum supply and producer shares were not read. The chromium share of 45.1% is calculated by Space Mushroom from the USGS table and is labelled as calculated.",
    "The ETP, wrought ASTM F1537 and R31538 (listed by VDM against this powder) data were not recorded, since they are separate product forms in the sources read."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "ASTM F75 (UNS R30075) is a cobalt-chromium-molybdenum casting alloy, written as Co-28Cr-6Mo, for surgical implants. The cast grade has a minimum tensile strength of 655 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa, according to the ICAST data sheet. The same composition is sold by VDM as a powder for additive manufacturing, with a density of 8.3 g/cm3 at 20 °C. VDM credits the chromium content with very good general corrosion and temperature resistance.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Additive manufacturing powder",
        "line": "VDM sells its CoCr F75 powder as spherical particles in standard fractions of 15-53 and 53-150 µm, for additive manufacturing. 3D Systems sells LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) for its ProX DMP 320 printer."
      },
      {
        "where": "Gas turbine nozzles and vanes",
        "line": "VDM lists high-temperature engineering uses for the alloy: gas nozzles and vanes for industrial gas turbines, and aero- and land-based gas turbines."
      },
      {
        "where": "Surgical implants",
        "line": "VDM lists knee implants, metal-to-metal hip joints and dental prosthetics as intended uses. ICAST lists the cast grade for surgical implants, and for valve, pump, general engineering and automotive parts."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Strength",
        "line": "Carries a minimum tensile strength of 655 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa as cast (ICAST).",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Stiffness",
        "line": "Has a Young's modulus of 225 GPa (±5 GPa) in laser-sintered parts after annealing (3D Systems). This is an additive value, not a cast value.",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Melting range",
        "line": "Melts between 1350 and 1430 °C as a powder (VDM).",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Hardness",
        "line": "Reaches a hardness of 25 to 35 HRC as cast (ICAST).",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) from 3D Systems, a laser-sintered material, has a yield strength of 540 MPa after annealing in the horizontal build direction. The cast F75 minimum is 450 MPa (ICAST). The two sources describe different product forms, so the difference is not a ranking of processes. The densities are 8.35 g/cm3 (theoretical, 3D Systems) and 8.3 g/cm3 (VDM powder).",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Yield strength",
        "benchmark": "yield_strength",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Young's modulus",
        "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Avoid breathing dust or fume, and use mechanical extraction ventilation where dust is a hazard (cobalt powder sheet).",
      "Keep cobalt powder in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area, away from oxidising agents, alkalis and acids.",
      "Use the supplier's safety data sheet for the alloy you buy; no sheet for the solid alloy was read here."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Implant parts: a minimum tensile strength of 655 MPa and a minimum yield strength of 450 MPa as cast (ICAST).",
      "Corrosion-resistant metal parts with high chromium: VDM gives very good general corrosion and temperature resistance."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Cobalt is released in body-fluid tests, and chromium release continues in fetal bovine serum after the second week.",
      "The mechanical values are cast minimums or additive datasheet values, not a full property set for the cast grade.",
      "The powder carries the classified cobalt hazards, including H334 for respiratory sensitisation."
    ],
    "verdict": "ASTM F75 has cast minimum strengths of 655 MPa tensile and 450 MPa yield (ICAST). Its cobalt powder carries sensitisation hazards, and cast values beyond minimums were not found.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "ASTM F75 is a cobalt-base alloy. Cobalt is the balance, and chromium and molybdenum are the main alloying elements, with the ASTM F75 limits printed in weight percent by VDM and ICAST. The cast grade is made by casting for surgical implants; the VDM powder is made as spherical particles for additive manufacturing.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Cobalt",
          "symbol": "Co",
          "role": "The matrix of the alloy. The ASTM F75 limits give cobalt only as the balance, so no numeric share is given."
        },
        {
          "name": "Chromium",
          "symbol": "Cr",
          "role": "Gives the alloy its passive oxide film. VDM credits its high chromium content with very good general corrosion and temperature resistance.",
          "share_percent": 27,
          "share_high": 30
        },
        {
          "name": "Molybdenum",
          "symbol": "Mo",
          "role": "A listed alloying element in the ASTM F75 composition. The sources read here do not separate its effect from the rest of the alloy.",
          "share_percent": 5,
          "share_high": 7
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "The hazard classes read here are for cobalt metal powder, from a supplier's safety data sheet. No safety data sheet for the solid CoCrMo alloy was read in this run.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Powder",
            "line": "The cobalt powder sheet (CAS 7440-48-4) lists H302, H334, H317 and H413 with the signal word DANGER. Its label section gives H301 where its hazard section gives H302."
          },
          {
            "label": "Cancer",
            "line": "The same sheet says cobalt and cobalt compounds are classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Breathing",
            "line": "The sheet warns that over-exposure to cobalt can cause respiratory sensitisation with asthma-like symptoms."
          },
          {
            "label": "Solid cobalt",
            "line": "A Ted Pella sheet for pure cobalt pieces, sheet and rod (not the CoCrMo alloy) gives no GHS hazard class, while its powder entry carries H317, H334 and H351 with the signal word DANGER."
          }
        ],
        "level": 1,
        "verdict": "Cobalt powder is classified; solid alloy not checked"
      },
      {
        "title": "If the alloy meets body fluid",
        "lead": "These results come from static immersion tests in laboratory fluids, not from implant patients.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Cobalt release",
            "line": "In a CoCrMo alloy (27 wt% Cr, 6 wt% Mo, balance Co), cobalt gave the highest ion release in artificial saliva, simulated body fluid and fetal bovine serum. Chromium release into simulated body fluid stayed negligible."
          },
          {
            "label": "Chromium later",
            "line": "In fetal bovine serum, chromium release continued after the second week, so the oxide layer did not stop it there."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Dust",
            "line": "Avoid breathing dust or fume. Use mechanical extraction ventilation where a dust inhalation hazard exists, and wear dust-proof goggles and PVC or rubber gloves (cobalt powder sheet)."
          },
          {
            "label": "Storage",
            "line": "Keep the powder in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area, away from oxidising agents, alkalis and acids (cobalt powder sheet)."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-11-01",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 15,
    "unreachable": 0,
    "caveats": 3,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-11-01 from the datasheets and pages named in each entry (PDFs extracted with pdftotext). Caveats: the cast values are ICAST minimums, the additive values come from one manufacturer sheet, and the hazard entry is for cobalt powder, not the solid alloy."
  },
  "sources": {
    "vdm-f75": {
      "title": "VDM Powder CoCr F75, Material Data Sheet No. 2006, Revision 03",
      "id": "VDM Metals International GmbH, November 2020; designations ISO 5832-12 / 5832-4, ASTM F1537-11 / F75, UNS R31538 / R30075",
      "url": "https://vdm-metals.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Data_Sheets/Data_Sheet_VDM_Powder_CoCr_F75.pdf",
      "year": 2020,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "icast-f75": {
      "title": "ASTM F 75 R30075: Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Casting Alloy and Cast Products for Surgical Implants",
      "id": "ICAST Alloys LLP material database; UNS R30075, JIS 7402-1",
      "url": "https://icastllp.com/material_db_pdf/ASTM%20F%2075%20R30075.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "3dsystems-cocrf75": {
      "title": "LaserForm CoCrF75 (A) datasheet, 3D Systems, for ProX DMP 320 metal printers",
      "id": "PN 10101A, 03-17; values for laser-sintered parts",
      "url": "https://3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/2017-03/3D-Systems_LaserForm_CoCrF75(A)_DATASHEET_USEN_2017.03.13_WEB.pdf",
      "year": 2017,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "producer data sheet (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "toker2022": {
      "title": "From corrosion behavior to radiation response: A comprehensive biocompatibility assessment of a CoCrMo medium entropy alloy for utility in orthopedic and dental implants",
      "id": "Gurel et al., Intermetallics 149 (2022) 107680",
      "url": "https://tatum.ogu.edu.tr/Storage/tatum/Uploads/From-corrosion-behavior-to-radiation-response-A-comprehensive-Mine-Toker-2022.pdf",
      "year": 2022,
      "kind": "paper",
      "license": "journal article (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "implats-co-sds": {
      "title": "Hazard data sheet: Cobalt powder, Impala Base Metals Refinery (MAN-HDS-001, revision 19, last reviewed 08-Jan-2018)",
      "id": "CAS 7440-48-4",
      "url": "https://www.implats.co.za/pdf/material-safety-data-sheets/hazard-data-sheet-cobalt-powder.pdf",
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document (cited, not reproduced)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-cobalt": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cobalt.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-chromium": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "tedpella-cobalt": {
      "title": "Safety Data Sheet, Cobalt Products (Ted Pella, Inc.), pieces and powder classification",
      "id": "CAS 7440-48-4; issue date 2015, review date 2017",
      "url": "https://www.tedpella.com/SDS_html/29-27_9570_Cobalt_Products_sds.pdf",
      "year": 2017,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier document (cited, not reproduced)"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/cobalt-chromium-f75/"
}