{ "spore": "profile", "id": "chromium-alloys", "spore_version": "0.2", "family": "chromium-rich-binary-alloys", "name": "Chromium-rich binary alloys", "abbreviation": "Cr alloys", "role": "alloying and coating feedstock; chromium-iron, chromium-nickel, chromium-aluminium and chromium-titanium alloys for stainless steel, hardfacing and sputtering targets", "category": "metals", "type": "heavy-metals", "summary": "Chromium-rich binary alloys are the chromium-iron, chromium-nickel, chromium-aluminium and chromium-titanium systems. The most-used member is ferrochrome, an iron-chromium alloy with 50 to 70 % chromium by weight, made by electric arc carbothermic reduction of chromite (Wikipedia). Over 80 % of world ferrochrome goes into stainless steel (Wikipedia). The USGS says chromium has no substitute in stainless steel or in superalloys (USGS 2026). The pure metal under these alloys has a density of 7.192 g/cm3 and a melting point of 1907 °C (Wikipedia). A cross-metal summary at this depth is not available for the Cr-Ni 50/50 hardfacing grade or the Cr-Al and Cr-Ti sputtering targets: no datasheet with a measured density or melting point was read in this run, so those rows are left as gaps.\n", "best_for": "Adding chromium to steel and superalloys: the USGS says chromium has no substitute in stainless steel or in superalloys, and a 12 % Cr, 4 % Ni flux-cored hardfacing wire gives 400 HB as welded (Gedik)", "weakest_at": "Chromium loss at high temperature in wet oxygen: volatile chromium-oxy-hydroxide CrO2(OH)2 depletes the chromia scale (Sand 2022 thesis), and hexavalent chromium compounds are carcinogenic (Wikipedia, NIST)", "identity": { "formula": "Chromium-rich binary alloys: ferrochrome (Fe-Cr, 50 to 70 % Cr by weight, Wikipedia); Cr-Ni hardfacing and sputtering targets, Cr-Al and Cr-Ti targets (compositions per supplier, see gaps)", "designations": [], "source": "wikipedia-ferrochrome", "where": "Opening paragraph, ferrochrome definition (generally containing 50 to 70 % chromium by weight). The pure chromium CAS number 7440-47-3 is printed on the Goodfellow chromium sputtering target page and applies to the element, not to any alloy in this family." }, "tags": { "environments": [], "stresses": [ "extreme-heat" ], "applications": [ "structures", "mechanisms", "electronics-and-chips" ] }, "properties": [ { "benchmark": "density", "label": "Density at 20 °C, pure chromium (reference for the Cr component)", "value": 7.192, "bound": "exact", "unit": "g/cm3", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "temperature": "20 °C" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium (the page cites a handbook for it)", "status": "ground", "note": "Reference for the element that makes up these alloys. It is not a value for any Cr-Ni, Cr-Al, Cr-Ti or ferrochrome alloy.", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Density (at 20° C) 7.192 g/cm3", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "density", "label": "Density at 20 °C, chromium sputtering target 99.99 %", "value": 7.1, "bound": "exact", "unit": "g/cm3", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium sputtering target, 99.99 % purity, 3 mm thick", "temperature": "20 °C" }, "method": "Value printed on the supplier product page for a pure chromium sputtering target", "status": "ground", "note": "Goodfellow gives 7.1 g/cm3 for its pure chromium target; Wikipedia gives 7.192 g/cm3 for the element. Both are kept, and neither is an alloy value.", "source": "goodfellow-cr-target", "where": "Physical Properties table, Density (gcm-3) 7.1 at 20 °C", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium Sputtering Target, 99.99 % (Goodfellow product 1000043635)", "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/chromium-sputtering-target-1000043635", "kind": "web", "license": "Supplier product page (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "melting_point", "label": "Melting point, pure chromium (reference)", "value": 1907, "bound": "exact", "unit": "°C", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "pressure": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Melting point 2180 K (1907 °C)", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "boiling_point", "label": "Boiling point, pure chromium (Wikipedia)", "value": 2671, "bound": "exact", "unit": "°C", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "pressure": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "note": "Wikipedia gives 2671 °C and Goodfellow gives 2672 °C. Both are kept.", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Boiling point 2944 K (2671 °C)", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "boiling_point", "label": "Boiling point, pure chromium sputtering target (Goodfellow)", "value": 2672, "bound": "exact", "unit": "°C", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium sputtering target, 99.99 % purity", "pressure": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed on the supplier product page for a pure chromium sputtering target", "status": "ground", "source": "goodfellow-cr-target", "where": "Physical Properties table, Boiling point (C) 2672", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium Sputtering Target, 99.99 % (Goodfellow product 1000043635)", "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/chromium-sputtering-target-1000043635", "kind": "web", "license": "Supplier product page (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "label": "Thermal conductivity, pure chromium (reference)", "value": 93.9, "bound": "exact", "unit": "W/(m⋅K)", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "temperature": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "note": "Low for a metal of this density, and the page gives no temperature. It is not a value for the alloys.", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Thermal conductivity 93.9 W/(m⋅K)", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "electrical_resistivity", "label": "Electrical resistivity, pure chromium at 20 °C (reference)", "value": 125, "bound": "exact", "unit": "nΩ⋅m", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "temperature": "20 °C" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "note": "Pure chromium only. Resistive alloys made with chromium are far more resistive, for example the Ni80/Cr20 wire in the nichrome profile, so this value does not stand for those alloys.", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Electrical resistivity 125 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "elastic_modulus", "label": "Young modulus, pure chromium (reference)", "value": 279, "bound": "exact", "unit": "GPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "temperature": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Young's modulus 279 GPa", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "shear_modulus", "label": "Shear modulus, pure chromium (reference)", "value": 115, "bound": "exact", "unit": "GPa", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "pure chromium metal (reference only, not an alloy)", "temperature": "not stated" }, "method": "Value printed in the Wikipedia infobox for chromium", "status": "ground", "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Infobox, Shear modulus 115 GPa", "source_detail": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "chromium_content_ferrochrome", "label": "Chromium content of ferrochrome by weight", "value": 50, "value_high": 70, "bound": "range", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "ferrochrome (FeCr), general range for the alloy class", "basis": "mass fraction of chromium" }, "method": "Range printed in the Wikipedia article definition of ferrochrome", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. Canonical property file has no composition entry, so the name is chromium_content_ferrochrome and is listed in gaps.", "source": "wikipedia-ferrochrome", "where": "Opening paragraph, Ferrochrome alloy definition (generally containing 50 to 70 % chromium by weight)", "source_detail": { "title": "Ferrochrome (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrochrome", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "chromium_content_reference_ferrochrome", "label": "Chromium mass fraction, high-carbon ferrochromium SRM 64c", "value": 68, "bound": "exact", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "high-carbon ferrochromium powder, NIST SRM 64c", "basis": "nominal mass concentration" }, "method": "Nominal mass concentration printed on the NIST safety data sheet for the reference powder", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. It is a nominal value for one reference powder, not a specification for all ferrochrome.", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 3, composition table, Chromium row, Nominal Mass Concentration (%) 68", "source_detail": { "title": "Safety Data Sheet, SRM 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon (NIST), issued 27 July 2018", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018, "kind": "datasheet", "license": "US government safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "carbon_content_reference_ferrochrome", "label": "Carbon mass fraction, high-carbon ferrochromium SRM 64c", "value": 4.7, "bound": "exact", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "high-carbon ferrochromium powder, NIST SRM 64c", "basis": "nominal mass concentration" }, "method": "Nominal mass concentration printed on the NIST safety data sheet for the reference powder", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. It is a nominal value for one reference powder.", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 3, composition table, Nominal Mass Concentration (%) column", "source_detail": { "title": "Safety Data Sheet, SRM 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon (NIST), issued 27 July 2018", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018, "kind": "datasheet", "license": "US government safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "silicon_content_reference_ferrochrome", "label": "Silicon mass fraction, high-carbon ferrochromium SRM 64c", "value": 1.22, "bound": "exact", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "high-carbon ferrochromium powder, NIST SRM 64c", "basis": "nominal mass concentration" }, "method": "Nominal mass concentration printed on the NIST safety data sheet for the reference powder", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. It is a nominal value for one reference powder.", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 3, composition table, Nominal Mass Concentration (%) column", "source_detail": { "title": "Safety Data Sheet, SRM 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon (NIST), issued 27 July 2018", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018, "kind": "datasheet", "license": "US government safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "nickel_content_reference_ferrochrome", "label": "Nickel mass fraction, high-carbon ferrochromium SRM 64c", "value": 0.43, "bound": "exact", "unit": "%", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "high-carbon ferrochromium powder, NIST SRM 64c", "basis": "nominal mass concentration" }, "method": "Nominal mass concentration printed on the NIST safety data sheet for the reference powder", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. It is a nominal value for one reference powder.", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 3, composition table, Nominal Mass Concentration (%) column", "source_detail": { "title": "Safety Data Sheet, SRM 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon (NIST), issued 27 July 2018", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018, "kind": "datasheet", "license": "US government safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)" } }, { "benchmark": "hardness_brinell", "label": "Hardness as welded, Cr-Ni flux-cored hardfacing deposit (HARDCOR 414)", "value": 400, "bound": "exact", "unit": "HB", "scope": "material", "conditions": { "grade": "HARDCOR 414 flux-cored wire, typical weld metal of 12 % Cr and 4 % Ni (not the 50/50 grade)", "form": "as-welded deposit" }, "method": "Typical value printed in the manufacturer datasheet for the wire", "status": "ground", "note": "Non-canonical property name. The value is for a 12 Cr, 4 Ni deposit, which is a different composition from 50/50 Cr-Ni.", "source": "gedik-hardcor-414", "where": "Mechanical Properties table, Hardness (as welded) (HB) 400", "source_detail": { "title": "HARDCOR 414 flux cored wire for hardfacing (Gedik Welding), product datasheet", "url": "https://file.gedik.com.tr/portal/approval_documents/gekatec-hardcor-414-en_628387eaf0c31.pdf", "kind": "datasheet", "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)" } } ], "corrosion": [ { "environment": "Chromia-forming alloys in oxygen plus water at high temperature", "headline": "Volatile chromium-oxy-hydroxide strips chromium from the chromia scale.", "effect": "The Chalmers thesis (Sand 2022) reports extensive volatilization of CrO2(OH)2 from chromia-forming Ni-base alloys in high oxygen and water, which depleted chromium, triggered nickel oxidation and formed a NiO cap layer on the chromia scale. The thesis gives no corrosion rate in micrometres per year.", "rating": "severe", "conditions": { "environment": "high oxygen and water concentrations", "basis": "laboratory exposures of alloys in the thesis; temperature not stated in the abstract" }, "source": "sand-2022-thesis", "where": "Abstract, first paragraph on high oxygen and water concentrations; Introduction paragraph on CrO2(OH)2" }, { "environment": "Nitrogen-containing environment at low oxygen activity", "headline": "A chromia scale cuts nitridation by 50 to 95 %, and an alumina scale without macro defects blocks nitrogen fully.", "effect": "The Chalmers abstract reports that a chromia scale decreased nitridation by 50 to 95 % in the nitriding environment tested, and that a chromia and silica two-layered scale gave 83 to 95 %. Alumina scales without macro defects completely block the ingress of nitrogen.", "rating": "moderate", "conditions": { "environment": "nitriding environment with high nitrogen concentration and low oxygen activity", "basis": "gravimetric and GD-OES analyses in the thesis" }, "source": "sand-2022-thesis", "where": "Abstract, nitridation paragraph" }, { "environment": "Cr-containing alumina-forming alloys at high temperature", "headline": "Alumina scales show very limited evaporation of chromium.", "effect": "The Chalmers abstract says Cr-containing alloys forming alumina scales showed a very limited evaporation rate of chromium-oxy-hydroxide. This is the opposite of the chromia-forming case above.", "rating": "low", "conditions": { "environment": "high oxygen and water, alumina-forming alloys", "basis": "exposures in the thesis" }, "source": "sand-2022-thesis", "where": "Abstract, the paragraph beginning Cr-containing alloys forming alumina scales" } ], "risks": { "hazards": [ { "text": "NIST SRM 64c safety data sheet, high-carbon ferrochromium powder: physical hazard not classified; health hazards skin sensitization category 1 (H317) and carcinogenicity category 2 (H351, suspected of causing cancer via inhalation); signal word WARNING.", "ghs": [ "H317", "H351" ], "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 2, Hazards Identification, Classification, Label Elements and Hazard Statements" }, { "text": "The same NIST sheet gives OSHA PEL 1 mg/m3 TWA and ACGIH TLV 0.5 mg/m3 TWA for chromium.", "ghs": [], "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 8, Exposure Limits table, Chromium row" }, { "text": "Wikipedia: chromium metal and Cr(III) ions are considered non-toxic, but chromate and its derivatives (hexavalent chromium) are toxic and carcinogenic.", "ghs": [], "source": "wikipedia-chromium", "where": "Biological role, and Precautions section" } ], "failure_risks": [ { "mode": "Chromium depletion from the scale in wet oxygen at high temperature", "trigger": "Water vapour together with oxygen at high temperature in service", "consequence": "Volatile CrO2(OH)2 removes chromium and depletes the alloy, which stops the chromia scale from protecting it (Sand 2022 thesis).", "severity": "high", "source": "sand-2022-thesis", "where": "Abstract, first paragraph; Introduction paragraph on chromium-oxy-hydroxide" }, { "mode": "Nitridation below the chromia scale", "trigger": "Nitrogen-containing environment at low oxygen activity", "consequence": "Nitrogen penetrates the scale and the alloy, which can make it brittle. A chromia scale reduces nitridation by 50 to 95 %, so the scale has to stay intact.", "severity": "moderate", "source": "sand-2022-thesis", "where": "Abstract, nitridation paragraph; Introduction paragraph on nitrogen and carbon penetration" } ], "side_effects": [ { "text": "Dust and fume from grinding or welding carry chromium and nickel compounds, and the NIST sheet lists chromium as an exposure hazard.", "affects": "Handling of powder and fume from ferrochrome and hardfacing wire", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 8 exposure limits; Section 2 hazard statements" } ], "handling": [ { "text": "The NIST sheet sets an exposure limit of 0.5 mg/m3 (ACGIH TLV) and 1 mg/m3 (OSHA PEL) for chromium, so exposure control is needed for powder and fume.", "source": "nist-srm-64c", "where": "Section 8 exposure limits table" } ], "mitigations": [] }, "uses": [ { "application": "mechanisms", "device": "Hardfacing overlays on steel mill rolls, pumps and valves", "example": "Gedik lists steel mill rolls, rollers, pumps and 410 stainless valves as typical base materials for its Cr-Ni flux-cored hardfacing wire (the wire deposit is 12 % Cr and 4 % Ni, not 50/50).", "source": "gedik-hardcor-414", "where": "Typical Base Material Grades, and Features and Applications sections" }, { "application": "electronics-and-chips", "device": "Magnetron sputtering target for thin films", "example": "Goodfellow sells a 99.99 % pure chromium sputtering target for PVD and magnetron sputtering systems. Stanford Advanced Materials sells a CrAl sputtering target at 99.8 % purity or customized, made by arc melting and vacuum processing.", "source": "goodfellow-cr-target", "where": "Product description; purity and form table" }, { "application": "structures", "device": "Stainless steel structural and corrosion-resistant parts", "example": "Over 80 % of world ferrochrome goes into stainless steel, where chromium gives corrosion resistance; the USGS says chromium has no substitute in stainless steel.", "source": "wikipedia-ferrochrome", "where": "Usage section" } ], "supply": [ { "subject": "Chromium", "producers": [ { "country": "South Africa", "share_percent": 45.1, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Turkey", "share_percent": 17.6, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Kazakhstan", "share_percent": 13.7, "year": 2025 } ], "critical_lists": [], "recycling": "USGS: recycled chromium in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts accounted for 21 % of apparent consumption in 2025.", "substitutes": [ "USGS: chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic end use. Chromium-containing scrap can substitute for ferrochromium in some metallurgical uses." ], "source": "usgs-mcs2026-chromium", "where": "World Mine Production and Reserves table, 2025e column (world total 51000 thousand t gross weight of chromite ore; shares calculated by Space Mushroom against that printed total; Kazakhstan value estimated by USGS); Recycling; Substitutes; Salient Statistics price rows" }, { "subject": "Ferrochromium imports, United States (2021 to 2024)", "producers": [ { "country": "South Africa", "share_percent": 41, "year": 2024 }, { "country": "Kazakhstan", "share_percent": 24, "year": 2024 }, { "country": "Russia", "share_percent": 6, "year": 2024 } ], "critical_lists": [], "recycling": "Not stated for ferrochromium in the USGS summary.", "substitutes": [], "source": "usgs-mcs2026-chromium", "where": "Import Sources (2021 to 24) line, Ferrochromium entry. The USGS gives the period 2021 to 2024, so the year field shows 2024 as the last year of the range." }, { "subject": "Aluminium (feedstock for Cr-Al targets)", "producers": [ { "country": "China", "share_percent": 60.8, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Russia", "share_percent": 5.3, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Canada", "share_percent": 4.5, "year": 2025 } ], "critical_lists": [], "recycling": "Not read in this run.", "substitutes": [ "USGS: composites, magnesium, steel and titanium can substitute for aluminum in some ground-transportation uses." ], "source": "usgs-mcs2026-aluminum", "where": "World Smelter Production and Capacity table, 2025e column (world total 74000 thousand t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom against that printed total)" }, { "subject": "Titanium sponge (feedstock for Cr-Ti targets)", "producers": [ { "country": "China", "share_percent": 70.3, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Japan", "share_percent": 14.3, "year": 2025 }, { "country": "Russia", "share_percent": 6.8, "year": 2025 } ], "critical_lists": [], "recycling": "USGS: consumption data for titanium scrap metal were limited; not quantified in this run.", "substitutes": [ "USGS: few materials match titanium metal strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance." ], "source": "usgs-mcs2026-titanium", "where": "World Sponge Metal Production table, 2025e column (world total 370000 metric t; shares calculated by Space Mushroom against that printed total); Substitutes" } ], "media": [], "documents": [ { "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Chromium", "type": "report", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Aluminum", "type": "report", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Titanium", "type": "report", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-titanium.pdf", "year": 2026 }, { "title": "Wikipedia: Ferrochrome", "type": "database", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrochrome" }, { "title": "Wikipedia: Chromium", "type": "database", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium" }, { "title": "Goodfellow: Chromium Sputtering Target, 99.99 %, 3 mm (product 1000043635)", "type": "datasheet", "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/chromium-sputtering-target-1000043635" }, { "title": "Stanford Advanced Materials: ST11181 Chromium Aluminum Sputtering Target (CrAl)", "type": "datasheet", "url": "https://www.samaterials.com/item/st11181-chromium-aluminum-sputtering-target-cral-target.html" }, { "title": "Gedik Welding: HARDCOR 414 flux-cored wire for hardfacing datasheet", "type": "datasheet", "url": "https://file.gedik.com.tr/portal/approval_documents/gekatec-hardcor-414-en_628387eaf0c31.pdf" }, { "title": "NIST Standard Reference Material 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon, safety data sheet (issued 27 July 2018)", "type": "sds", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018 }, { "title": "Sand, T. 2022: High-Temperature Corrosion Properties of Chromia- and Alumina-Forming Alloys, PhD thesis, Chalmers University of Technology", "type": "paper", "url": "https://research.chalmers.se/publication/530167/file/530167_Fulltext.pdf", "year": 2022 } ], "gaps": [ "Cr-Ni 50/50 hardfacing: no datasheet for a 50/50 Cr-Ni hardfacing wire or deposit was found. The Gedik HARDCOR 414 wire is a 12 Cr, 4 Ni deposit, and the search results for other Cr-Ni wires (Certilas, 13 Cr, 4 Ni and 25 Cr, 4 Ni) gave no 50/50 composition. No property of the 50/50 grade is in this file.", "Cr-Ni 50/50 sputtering target: the search results gave a melting point of 1400 °C and no density for a CrNi target, but these were generic or theoretical listings for a nickel-chromium target without a stated 50/50 composition, so they are not recorded.", "Cr-Al: the Stanford Advanced Materials page gives purity (99.8 % or customized) and process (arc melting and vacuum processing) but no composition ratio, density or melting point. Ratios of 50:50 and 70:30 at.% appear only in search snippets from other vendors and are not recorded.", "Cr-Ti: the American Elements page returned a bot-check page (Cloudflare) and could not be read. The Thin Film Materials page gives purity and a 50:50 at.% ratio as common, but no density or melting point. No Cr-Ti property value is in this file.", "Fe-Cr-Mo: not covered. The brief names Fe-Cr-Mo, but no Fe-Cr-Mo source was read in this run. Cr-Mo steels are a different family from ferrochrome.", "Non-canonical property names: hardness_brinell, chromium_content_ferrochrome, chromium_content_reference_ferrochrome, carbon_content_reference_ferrochrome, silicon_content_reference_ferrochrome and nickel_content_reference_ferrochrome are not in spores/property-canon.yaml. They are kept as short snake_case names until the canonical file adds them.", "Designations: no UNS, EN, DIN, JIS or AISI code was printed for any of these grades in the sources read, so designations is empty.", "Melting points of the alloys (ferrochrome, Cr-Ni, Cr-Al, Cr-Ti) were not read in this run. Only the pure element melting point was read (Wikipedia, 1907 °C).", "Atomic weights were not read from a fetched page, so no recipe part carries atomic_weight.", "Corrosion: no corrosion rate in micrometres per year and no sulphur, chloride or humidity data for these alloys. The Sand thesis gives qualitative results and percentages for nitridation only. Outgassing, atomic oxygen and radiation effects were not looked up.", "Ferrochrome hazard classes differ by supplier and grade. The Sigma-Aldrich high-carbon SDS (NIST64C) was seen in a search snippet as flammable solid with a DANGER signal word, which conflicts with the NIST SRM 64c sheet (no physical hazard, WARNING). The Sigma sheet was not fetched, so it is not used. The DLA ferrochromium SDS link returned an HTML page, not a PDF, and was not read.", "Critical-mineral list status for chromium: the 2026 USGS chromium summary read in this run does not name a critical-minerals list, and the EU critical raw materials list was not read. No list entry is recorded.", "The Gedik datasheet lists operating current and voltage for 1.60 mm wire (180 to 210 A, 26 to 31 V) and a 15 kg package. These are process data and are not recorded as properties." ], "story": { "why": "Chromium-rich binary alloys are used because chromium gives corrosion resistance and hardness. Ferrochrome (50 to 70 % Cr) is the main feed for stainless steel. The Gedik hardfacing wire deposit is 400 HB as welded. The pure metal under these alloys is dense (7.192 g/cm3) and melts at 1907 °C. The weak points are that volatile chromium compounds form in wet oxygen at high temperature, and that hexavalent chromium is a carcinogen.", "uses": [ { "where": "Hardfacing overlays", "line": "The Gedik HARDCOR 414 flux-cored wire, with 12 % Cr and 4 % Ni in the deposit, is for hardfacing steel mill rolls, pumps and valves, and gives 400 HB as welded." }, { "where": "Sputtering targets", "line": "Goodfellow sells a 99.99 % chromium sputtering target for PVD and magnetron sputtering. Stanford Advanced Materials sells a CrAl target at 99.8 % purity or customized." }, { "where": "Stainless steel", "line": "Over 80 % of world ferrochrome goes into stainless steel, where chromium gives the corrosion resistance (Wikipedia)." } ], "can_do": [ { "label": "Resist oxidation with a chromia scale", "line": "The pure metal conducts heat at 93.9 W/(m⋅K) (Wikipedia, temperature not stated). Chromia scales resist oxidation, and the Sand thesis shows a chromia scale cuts nitridation by 50 to 95 %.", "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "scope": "material", "value": "93.9 W/(m⋅K)" }, { "label": "Stay solid when hot", "line": "The pure metal melts at 1907 °C (Wikipedia). The alloy melting points were not read in this run.", "benchmark": "melting_point", "scope": "material", "value": "1907 °C melting point" }, { "label": "Carry a hard wear layer", "line": "The Gedik 12 Cr, 4 Ni flux-cored deposit is 400 HB as welded. This is not the 50/50 Cr-Ni grade.", "benchmark": "hardness_brinell", "scope": "material", "value": "400 HB as welded" } ], "compare": "These compare rows use the pure chromium reference values for density, melting point and thermal conductivity, because the alloy values for the Cr-Ni 50/50, Cr-Al and Cr-Ti grades were not read in this run. Read them as the element, not as a ranking of the alloys.", "compare_rows": [ { "label": "Density, pure Cr reference", "benchmark": "density", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Melting point, pure Cr reference", "benchmark": "melting_point", "scope": "material" }, { "label": "Thermal conductivity, pure Cr reference", "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity", "scope": "material" } ], "handling": [ "Keep ferrochrome and hardfacing powder and fume below the 0.5 mg/m3 ACGIH TLV for chromium (NIST SRM 64c sheet).", "Check the SDS for the exact ferrochrome grade and supplier, because classifications differ by carbon content and supplier.", "Keep wet oxygen and high temperature away from chromia-forming alloys where possible, since chromium is lost as volatile CrO2(OH)2 (Sand 2022)." ], "good_for": [ "Stainless steel feed: over 80 % of ferrochrome goes into stainless steel, and the USGS says chromium has no substitute in it.", "Hardfacing: 400 HB as welded for the Gedik 12 Cr, 4 Ni flux-cored deposit.", "Sputtering targets: 99.99 % pure chromium and 99.8 % CrAl targets are sold for PVD (Goodfellow, Stanford Advanced Materials)." ], "watch_out": [ "Hexavalent chromium: the NIST sheet for ferrochrome powder gives H351, suspected of causing cancer via inhalation.", "Wet oxygen at high temperature: volatile CrO2(OH)2 depletes chromia-forming alloys (Sand 2022).", "Supplier classification varies: the NIST SRM 64c sheet and a Sigma-Aldrich sheet seen in search do not give the same hazard class.", "No Cr-Ni 50/50, Cr-Al or Cr-Ti property value is in this file; see gaps." ], "verdict": "Chromium-rich binary alloys are the feed for stainless steel and a source of hard, corrosion-resistant overlays and sputtering targets. The pure metal is dense (7.192 g/cm3) and melts at 1907 °C. The 50/50 Cr-Ni, Cr-Al and Cr-Ti grades have no sourced density or melting point in this file, and the Fe-Cr-Mo family is not covered. Ferrochrome and its powders carry skin-sensitization and carcinogenicity classifications.", "recipe": { "line": "Chromium-rich binary alloys are not one composition. Ferrochrome (Fe-Cr) contains 50 to 70 % chromium by weight and is made by electric arc carbothermic reduction of chromite (Wikipedia). The reference ferrochromium powder NIST SRM 64c is given in the parts below, as nominal mass concentrations. The Cr-Ni 50/50, Cr-Al and Cr-Ti compositions are not read in this run.", "parts": [ { "name": "Chromium", "symbol": "Cr", "role": "Main alloying element; ferrochrome generally contains 50 to 70 % Cr (Wikipedia)", "share_percent": 68 }, { "name": "Iron", "symbol": "Fe", "role": "Matrix element of ferrochrome", "share_percent": 25 }, { "name": "Carbon", "symbol": "C", "role": "Carbon from the carbothermic reduction, high-carbon grade", "share_percent": 4.7 }, { "name": "Silicon", "symbol": "Si", "role": "Minor element in the reference grade", "share_percent": 1.22 }, { "name": "Nickel", "symbol": "Ni", "role": "Trace element in the reference grade", "share_percent": 0.43 } ] }, "risk_groups": [ { "title": "For people", "lead": "Chromium metal and Cr(III) are considered non-toxic, but hexavalent chromium is carcinogenic, and the high-carbon ferrochrome reference powder is a skin sensitizer and suspected carcinogen.", "points": [ { "label": "Ferrochromium SDS", "line": "The NIST SRM 64c sheet for high-carbon ferrochromium powder gives H317 (skin sensitization category 1) and H351 (suspected of causing cancer via inhalation, category 2), with the signal word WARNING." }, { "label": "Exposure limits", "line": "The same sheet gives 1 mg/m3 (OSHA PEL) and 0.5 mg/m3 (ACGIH TLV) for chromium." }, { "label": "Hexavalent chromium", "line": "Wikipedia says chromate and its derivatives are toxic and carcinogenic, unlike the metal and Cr(III) ions." } ], "level": 1, "verdict": "Ferrochrome: sensitizer and suspected carcinogen" }, { "title": "If it fails", "lead": "The failure routes in the sources are chromium loss in wet oxygen and nitrogen ingress when the chromia scale is damaged.", "points": [ { "label": "Volatile chromium loss", "line": "In high oxygen and water, chromia-forming Ni-base alloys lost chromium by volatilization of CrO2(OH)2, which depleted the alloy (Sand 2022 thesis)." }, { "label": "Nitrogen ingress", "line": "A chromia scale reduced nitridation by 50 to 95 %, so a damaged scale lets nitrogen into the alloy." } ] }, { "title": "Handling and storage", "points": [ { "label": "Control dust and fume", "line": "Control powder and fume from ferrochrome and hardfacing wire, because the NIST sheet lists chromium exposure limits." } ] } ] }, "updated": "2026-10-26", "review": { "status": "draft", "method": "assistant", "checked_values": 15, "unreachable": 1, "caveats": 4, "note": "Values were read by an AI assistant on 2026-10-26 from the pages and PDFs named in each entry. The pure chromium reference values are for the element, not for the alloys in this family. The Cr-Ni 50/50, Cr-Al and Cr-Ti properties are not in the file. The American Elements Cr-Ti page could not be read (bot-check page). Caveats: the chromium shares are calculated from printed mine production (gross weight of chromite ore), the aluminium and titanium shares are calculated from printed world totals, and the corrosion ratings are the profile reading of the Sand thesis, not a published rating." }, "sources": { "usgs-mcs2026-chromium": { "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Chromium", "id": "USGS MCS 2026", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-chromium.pdf", "year": 2026, "kind": "report", "license": "public domain (USGS)" }, "usgs-mcs2026-aluminum": { "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Aluminum", "id": "USGS MCS 2026", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-aluminum.pdf", "year": 2026, "kind": "report", "license": "public domain (USGS)" }, "usgs-mcs2026-titanium": { "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Titanium", "id": "USGS MCS 2026", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-titanium.pdf", "year": 2026, "kind": "report", "license": "public domain (USGS)" }, "wikipedia-ferrochrome": { "title": "Ferrochrome (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrochrome", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" }, "wikipedia-chromium": { "title": "Chromium (Wikipedia)", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium", "kind": "web", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (cited, not reproduced)" }, "goodfellow-cr-target": { "title": "Chromium Sputtering Target, 99.99 % (Goodfellow product 1000043635)", "url": "https://www.goodfellow.com/uk/chromium-sputtering-target-1000043635", "kind": "web", "license": "Supplier product page (cited, not reproduced)" }, "sam-cral": { "title": "ST11181 Chromium Aluminum Sputtering Target, CrAl (Stanford Advanced Materials)", "url": "https://www.samaterials.com/item/st11181-chromium-aluminum-sputtering-target-cral-target.html", "kind": "web", "license": "Supplier product page (cited, not reproduced)" }, "gedik-hardcor-414": { "title": "HARDCOR 414 flux cored wire for hardfacing (Gedik Welding), product datasheet", "url": "https://file.gedik.com.tr/portal/approval_documents/gekatec-hardcor-414-en_628387eaf0c31.pdf", "kind": "datasheet", "license": "Manufacturer datasheet (cited, not reproduced)" }, "nist-srm-64c": { "title": "Safety Data Sheet, SRM 64c Ferrochromium High Carbon (NIST), issued 27 July 2018", "url": "https://tsapps.nist.gov/srmext/msds/64c-MSDS.pdf", "year": 2018, "kind": "datasheet", "license": "US government safety data sheet (cited, not reproduced)" }, "sand-2022-thesis": { "title": "High-Temperature Corrosion Properties of Chromia- and Alumina-Forming Alloys (Sand, Chalmers PhD thesis)", "url": "https://research.chalmers.se/publication/530167/file/530167_Fulltext.pdf", "year": 2022, "kind": "paper", "license": "Chalmers thesis (cited, not reproduced)" } }, "license": "CC-BY-4.0", "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/chromium-alloys/" }