{
  "spore": "profile",
  "id": "cadmium-telluride",
  "spore_version": "0.2",
  "family": "semiconductor-materials",
  "name": "Cadmium telluride (CdTe)",
  "abbreviation": "CdTe",
  "role": "thin-film photovoltaic absorber semiconductor",
  "category": "energy",
  "type": "solar-cells",
  "summary": "Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a zinc-blende compound of cadmium and tellurium with a direct band gap of 1.5 eV at 300 K, per Wikipedia. It is the absorber in the thin-film solar modules made by First Solar, whose Series 7 module is listed at up to 19.3% efficiency. Wikipedia reports a record CdTe cell efficiency of 22.1% in February 2016, credited to First Solar, and says CdTe held 5.1% of worldwide PV production in 2013. No flight or radiation-test record for CdTe was found in the sources read for this profile.\n",
  "best_for": "Utility-scale thin-film PV built on a high-volume line, where Wikipedia records a direct manufacturing cost of $0.57 per watt in 2013",
  "weakest_at": "Cadmium toxicity and tellurium supply: Wikipedia prints GHS codes H302, H312, H332, H410 and H411 for CdTe, and the USGS lists tellurium as a critical mineral that is recovered mainly from copper refining",
  "identity": {
    "formula": "CdTe",
    "cas": "1306-25-8",
    "crystal_system": "zinc blende",
    "space_group": "F43m",
    "designations": [],
    "source": "cdte-wiki",
    "where": "Infobox: formula, CAS number 1306-25-8, crystal structure zinc blende, space group F43m"
  },
  "tags": {
    "environments": [],
    "stresses": [
      "extreme-heat"
    ],
    "applications": [
      "solar-arrays"
    ]
  },
  "properties": [
    {
      "benchmark": "density",
      "value": 5.85,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g·cm−3",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Value in the Wikipedia infobox",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Density row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "melting_point",
      "value": 1041,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "pressure": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value, printed as 1,041 °C (1,906 °F; 1,314 K)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Melting point row; Chemical properties section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "boiling_point",
      "value": 1050,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "°C",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "pressure": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value, printed as 1,050 °C (1,920 °F; 1,320 K)",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Boiling point row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "thermal_conductivity",
      "value": 6.2,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "W·m/m2·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "293 K"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value, unit as printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Thermal conductivity row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "specific_heat",
      "value": 210,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "J/kg·K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "293 K"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value for heat capacity (C), unit as printed on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Thermochemistry (heat capacity C) row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cte",
      "value": 0.0000059,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "/K",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "293 K"
      },
      "method": "Printed on the page as 5.9×10−6/K; written here in the file's exponent form",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Physical properties section, thermal expansion coefficient",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "elastic_modulus",
      "value": 52,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "GPa",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Printed value for Young's modulus",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Physical properties section, Young's modulus row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "poissons_ratio",
      "value": 0.41,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "no unit or temperature printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Printed value for the Poisson ratio",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Physical properties section, Poisson ratio",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "refractive_index",
      "value": 2.67,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "-",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "wavelength": "10 μm, printed as @10 μm"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value, labelled nD on the page",
      "status": "ground",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Refractive index row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "band_gap",
      "label": "Band gap",
      "value": 1.5,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "eV",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "300 K",
        "gap_type": "direct, printed as @300 K, direct"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value. The page relates it to a band-gap wavelength of about 830 nm",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml; short snake_case name used.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Band gap row; Optical and electronic properties section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "electron_mobility",
      "label": "Electron mobility",
      "value": 1100,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "cm2/V·s",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "printed with a tilde (~1100 cm2/V·s) in a radiation-detector context"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the Applications section",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml. Approximate, as printed.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Applications section (electron mobility)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "hole_mobility",
      "label": "Hole mobility",
      "value": 100,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "cm2/V·s",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "printed with a tilde (~100 cm2/V·s) in a radiation-detector context"
      },
      "method": "Value printed in the Applications section",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml. Approximate, as printed.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Applications section (hole mobility)",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "water_solubility",
      "label": "Solubility in water",
      "value": 0.1,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "mg/L",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Footnote to the infobox: the insoluble classification rests on a value below 0.1 mg/L",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Solubility in water row and its footnote",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "lattice_constant",
      "label": "Lattice constant",
      "value": 0.648,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "nm",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "temperature": "not printed on the page"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value, printed as a = 0.648 nm",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Lattice constant row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "molar_mass",
      "label": "Molar mass",
      "value": 240.01,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "g/mol",
      "scope": "material",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "molar mass of the compound as printed"
      },
      "method": "Infobox value",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "cdte-wiki",
      "where": "Infobox, Molar mass row",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "cell_efficiency_record",
      "label": "Record CdTe cell efficiency",
      "value": 22.1,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "record CdTe cell, laboratory",
        "date": "February 2016",
        "maker": "First Solar"
      },
      "method": "Printed on Wikipedia with the company and date; not re-measured here",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
      "where": "Section 3.1, Technology: Cell efficiency",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "Cadmium telluride photovoltaics",
        "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride photovoltaics (read 2026-11-01)",
        "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "web",
        "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "module_efficiency",
      "label": "Module efficiency, Series 7",
      "value": 19.3,
      "bound": "upper",
      "unit": "%",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "printed as 'Up to 19.3%' efficiency",
        "product": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module"
      },
      "method": "Manufacturer product-page headline; a marketing figure with no test method stated",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "firstsolar-s7",
      "where": "Product page intro headline",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module (EMEA product page)",
        "id": "First Solar product page, undated; read 2026-11-01",
        "url": "https://www.firstsolar.com/en-EMEA/Products/Series-7",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer web page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    },
    {
      "benchmark": "annual_degradation_rate",
      "label": "Warranted annual degradation rate",
      "value": 0.3,
      "bound": "exact",
      "unit": "%/year",
      "scope": "cell",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "manufacturer warranty rate, printed as 0.3% per year",
        "product": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module"
      },
      "method": "Manufacturer warranty figure, not a measured field result",
      "status": "ground",
      "note": "Not in spores/property-canon.yaml.",
      "source": "firstsolar-s7",
      "where": "Product page intro headline and 'More Lifetime Energy per Nameplate Watt' section",
      "source_detail": {
        "title": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module (EMEA product page)",
        "id": "First Solar product page, undated; read 2026-11-01",
        "url": "https://www.firstsolar.com/en-EMEA/Products/Series-7",
        "year": 2026,
        "kind": "datasheet",
        "license": "manufacturer web page, linked not reproduced"
      }
    }
  ],
  "corrosion": [
    {
      "environment": "Outdoor field operation of a thin-film module (ageing)",
      "headline": "First Solar warrants 0.3% per year degradation and a 30-year linear performance warranty.",
      "effect": "The Series 7 product page prints a 'Warranted Annual Degradation Rate' of 0.3% per year and a '30 Year Linear Performance Warranty'. Wikipedia says PV modules last 25 to 30 years. These are a manufacturer warranty and a general statement, not a measured field test.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "basis": "manufacturer warranty figure",
        "product": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module"
      },
      "source": "firstsolar-s7",
      "where": "Product page intro headline; 'More Lifetime Energy per Nameplate Watt' section"
    },
    {
      "environment": "High operating temperature (module output)",
      "headline": "Wikipedia says CdTe modules yield 5 to 9% more annual energy than crystalline silicon at high temperature.",
      "effect": "The page prints: CdTe modules lose about half the performance of crystalline silicon modules at high temperature, yielding 5–9% more annual energy. The page gives no test temperature or conditions for this statement.",
      "rating": "low",
      "conditions": {
        "comparison": "crystalline silicon modules",
        "temperature": "high temperature, not defined on the page"
      },
      "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
      "where": "Section 3.3, Ambient temperature"
    }
  ],
  "risks": {
    "hazards": [
      {
        "text": "Wikipedia prints the GHS hazard statements H302, H312, H332, H410 and H411 for cadmium telluride, under the signal word Warning. The page does not print the wording of these statements.",
        "ghs": [
          "H302",
          "H312",
          "H332",
          "H410",
          "H411"
        ],
        "source": "cdte-wiki",
        "where": "Safety section, GHS hazard statements row"
      },
      {
        "text": "The Kurt J. Lesker safety data sheet for cadmium telluride (pieces), SDS No. 4766 revision 2, prints the signal word Warning and the hazard statements H302, H312, H332, H400 and H410. It prints H302 as Harmful if swallowed, H312 as Harmful in contact with skin, H332 as Harmful if inhaled, H400 as Very toxic to aquatic life and H410 as Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects. The Wikipedia list above has H411 and no H400, so the two sources differ.",
        "ghs": [
          "H302",
          "H312",
          "H332",
          "H400",
          "H410"
        ],
        "source": "kjlesker-cdte-sds",
        "where": "Label elements (signal word and hazard statements); Hazard statements in full at the end of the sheet"
      },
      {
        "text": "NIOSH limits printed for cadmium in CdTe: a time-weighted average permissible exposure limit of 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd (listed as 1910.1027), and an IDLH of 9 mg/m3 as Cd. The page gives no numeric REL.",
        "ghs": [],
        "source": "cdte-wiki",
        "where": "Safety section, NIOSH PEL, IDLH and REL rows"
      }
    ],
    "failure_risks": [
      {
        "mode": "Cadmium release at high temperature",
        "trigger": "Laboratory heating at about 1100 °C",
        "consequence": "0.4 to 0.6% of the cadmium content was released in these lab tests (Wikipedia prints 0.4–0.6%).",
        "severity": "moderate",
        "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
        "where": "Section 6, Environmental and health impact"
      }
    ],
    "side_effects": [
      {
        "text": "Cadmium air emissions: 0.02 to 0.5 grams per GWh of PV electricity, as printed on Wikipedia.",
        "affects": "Air around the plant and its surroundings",
        "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
        "where": "Section 6, Environmental and health impact"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      {
        "text": "First Solar recovers up to 95% of semiconductor material and 90% of glass from end-of-life modules, per Wikipedia. Its recycling program began in 2005.",
        "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
        "where": "Section 5, Recycling"
      }
    ],
    "mitigations": [
      {
        "text": "Keep airborne cadmium below the NIOSH permissible exposure limit of 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd, as printed on Wikipedia.",
        "source": "cdte-wiki",
        "where": "Safety section, NIOSH PEL row"
      }
    ]
  },
  "uses": [
    {
      "application": "solar-arrays",
      "device": "Utility-scale thin-film PV plants",
      "example": "Wikipedia lists Agua Caliente, Arizona at 290 MW and Topaz Solar Farm, California at 550 MW, whose construction finished in November 2014.",
      "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
      "where": "Section 7.1, Notable systems"
    },
    {
      "application": "solar-arrays",
      "device": "Thin-film PV panels made in the United States",
      "example": "USGS reports that the leading domestic CdTe solar-panel maker began production at a fifth facility in mid-2025, with capacity expected to reach about 14 gigawatts per year once ramped up in 2026.",
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-cadmium",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues (cadmium chapter)"
    },
    {
      "application": "solar-arrays",
      "device": "Thin-film photovoltaic market share (market context, not one device)",
      "example": "Wikipedia says CdTe held 5.1% of worldwide PV production and more than half of the thin-film market in 2013.",
      "source": "cdte-pv-wiki",
      "where": "Introduction (lead)"
    }
  ],
  "supply": [
    {
      "subject": "Cadmium",
      "abundance": "The USGS gives the cadmium content of typical zinc ores as about 0.03%, and says cadmium is generally recovered from zinc ores. A crust abundance was not found in the sources read.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 41.3,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Korea, Republic of",
          "share_percent": 18.7,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 5.7,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals",
          "listed": false
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (European Commission page)",
          "listed": false
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: secondary cadmium is mainly recovered from spent NiCd batteries, and CdTe solar panels are named among the scrap from which cadmium can be recycled.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: batteries with other chemistries, particularly lithium-ion, can replace NiCd batteries, and zinc-nickel coatings can replace cadmium in many plating applications."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-cadmium",
      "where": "World Refinery Production table, 2025e: China 9,500 t, Korea 4,300 t and Canada 1,300 t of a 23,000 t world total (rounded); shares calculated by Space Mushroom. Recycling; Substitutes. Critical lists from the USGS and EC pages"
    },
    {
      "subject": "Tellurium",
      "abundance": "Wikipedia says tellurium's abundance in the Earth's crust is comparable to platinum's. No numeric crust abundance was read in this run.",
      "producers": [
        {
          "country": "China",
          "share_percent": 80,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Japan",
          "share_percent": 6.1,
          "year": 2025
        },
        {
          "country": "Canada",
          "share_percent": 2.8,
          "year": 2025
        }
      ],
      "critical_lists": [
        {
          "list": "USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals (entry: Tellurium, used in solar cells)",
          "listed": true
        },
        {
          "list": "EU critical raw materials list (European Commission page)",
          "listed": false
        }
      ],
      "recycling": "USGS: tellurium was recycled from CdTe solar cells in the United States, but the quantity was limited because most of those cells had not reached the end of their useful life.",
      "substitutes": [
        "USGS: amorphous silicon and copper indium gallium diselenide are the two principal competitors with CdTe in thin-film photovoltaic cells."
      ],
      "source": "usgs-mcs2026-tellurium",
      "where": "Events, Trends, and Issues (China 80% of estimated 2025 global production, as printed); World Refinery Production table, 2025e: Japan 61 t and Canada 28 t of a 1,000 t world total (shares calculated by Space Mushroom); Recycling; Substitutes; USGS 2025 critical list (usgs-crit2025)"
    }
  ],
  "media": [],
  "documents": [
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cadmium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cadmium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Tellurium",
      "type": "report",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tellurium.pdf",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module (product page, EMEA)",
      "type": "datasheet",
      "url": "https://www.firstsolar.com/en-EMEA/Products/Series-7",
      "year": 2026
    },
    {
      "title": "Kurt J. Lesker safety data sheet, Cadmium Tellurium (pieces), SDS No. 4766 rev. 2",
      "type": "sds",
      "url": "https://cores.research.utdallas.edu/files/2023/04/CdTe-MSDS.pdf",
      "year": 2018
    }
  ],
  "gaps": [
    "No flight record for CdTe was found. The AlSat-1N Wikipedia page, read in this run, does not mention CdTe, so the AlSat-1N flight claim in the brief is not in this file.",
    "No radiation-tolerance comparison with silicon or III-V cells was found in the sources read, so radiation tolerance is not stated.",
    "The PubChem record could not be read (the site returned a browser-verification page), so PubChem could not confirm which hazard list is current. The GHS codes come from the Wikipedia safety section and from a Kurt J. Lesker safety data sheet (SDS No. 4766, 2018). The two lists differ on H411 and H400.",
    "The NREL Best Research-Cell Efficiency chart could not be reached (host did not resolve), so the 22.1% record is the value printed on Wikipedia, not a checked NREL row.",
    "Elemental atomic weights of cadmium and tellurium are not printed on the pages read, so the recipe parts carry no atomic_weight. The molar mass of 240.01 g/mol is printed.",
    "Temperature coefficient of power, nominal operating cell temperature and operating temperature range are not printed on the First Solar product page. Its linked Series 7 datasheet was not read.",
    "No corrosion or chemical-resistance test for CdTe was found. The corrosion section covers only warranted field ageing and the high-temperature output statement.",
    "No vacuum, thermal-cycling or proton or electron irradiation result for CdTe was found in the sources read.",
    "Band gap, electron and hole mobility, water solubility, lattice constant, molar mass, record cell efficiency, module efficiency and annual degradation rate are not in spores/property-canon.yaml. Short snake_case names were used.",
    "The crust abundance of cadmium is not printed in the sources read. The USGS gives only the cadmium content of typical zinc ores (about 0.03%).",
    "CdZnTe radiation-detector substrates named in the USGS cadmium chapter are a different compound and are not used in this profile.",
    "No media images were fetched, so the media section is empty."
  ],
  "story": {
    "why": "Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a semiconductor that absorbs sunlight in thin-film solar modules. Wikipedia gives its band gap as 1.5 eV at 300 K. Its importance comes from the module business: First Solar makes CdTe thin-film modules at scale, and Wikipedia says CdTe held 5.1% of worldwide PV production in 2013.",
    "uses": [
      {
        "where": "Utility-scale solar plants",
        "line": "Wikipedia lists Agua Caliente, Arizona at 290 MW and Topaz Solar Farm, California at 550 MW, whose construction finished in November 2014."
      },
      {
        "where": "U.S. manufacturing",
        "line": "USGS reports that the leading domestic CdTe solar-panel maker began production at a fifth facility in mid-2025, with capacity expected to reach about 14 gigawatts per year once ramped up in 2026."
      },
      {
        "where": "Market share",
        "line": "Wikipedia says CdTe held 5.1% of worldwide PV production and more than half of the thin-film market in 2013."
      }
    ],
    "can_do": [
      {
        "label": "Band gap",
        "line": "Wikipedia gives a direct band gap of 1.5 eV at 300 K, which it relates to a band-gap wavelength of about 830 nm.",
        "benchmark": "band_gap",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "1.5 eV"
      },
      {
        "label": "Cell efficiency",
        "line": "Wikipedia reports a record CdTe cell efficiency of 22.1% in February 2016, credited to First Solar.",
        "benchmark": "cell_efficiency_record",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "22.1%"
      },
      {
        "label": "Module efficiency",
        "line": "First Solar lists its Series 7 module at up to 19.3% efficiency. This is a manufacturer headline, not a measured test with a stated method.",
        "benchmark": "module_efficiency",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "Up to 19.3%"
      },
      {
        "label": "Ageing",
        "line": "First Solar warrants an annual degradation rate of 0.3% and a 30-year linear performance warranty.",
        "benchmark": "annual_degradation_rate",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "0.3% per year"
      },
      {
        "label": "High-temperature output",
        "line": "Wikipedia says CdTe modules lose about half the performance of crystalline silicon modules at high temperature, yielding 5 to 9% more annual energy.",
        "scope": "material",
        "value": "5 to 9% more energy"
      }
    ],
    "compare": "Cadmium telluride is a thin-film semiconductor, and the sources collected here compare it mainly with crystalline silicon. Wikipedia says CdTe modules lose about half the performance of crystalline silicon modules at high temperature, yielding 5 to 9% more annual energy. The USGS says CdTe solar panels compete with crystalline silicon panels. No silicon band gap or silicon efficiency was read in this run, so the comparison stops at what these sources print.",
    "compare_rows": [
      {
        "label": "Band gap",
        "benchmark": "band_gap",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Record cell efficiency",
        "benchmark": "cell_efficiency_record",
        "scope": "material"
      },
      {
        "label": "Density",
        "benchmark": "density",
        "scope": "material"
      }
    ],
    "handling": [
      "Keep airborne cadmium below the NIOSH permissible exposure limit of 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd (Wikipedia).",
      "Recycle end-of-life modules: First Solar recovers up to 95% of semiconductor material (Wikipedia).",
      "Note that lab heating at about 1100 °C released 0.4 to 0.6% of the cadmium content (Wikipedia)."
    ],
    "good_for": [
      "Utility-scale thin-film PV: Wikipedia lists plants of 290 MW and 550 MW built with CdTe modules.",
      "High-temperature energy yield: Wikipedia says CdTe modules yield 5 to 9% more annual energy than crystalline silicon at high temperature."
    ],
    "watch_out": [
      "Cadmium toxicity: Wikipedia prints H302, H312, H332, H410 and H411 for CdTe, and a NIOSH limit of 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd.",
      "Tellurium supply: the USGS lists tellurium as critical and says China produced 80% of estimated 2025 global output.",
      "Efficiency figures: 22.1% is a laboratory record cell, and 19.3% is a manufacturer headline for the Series 7 module, not a field result."
    ],
    "verdict": "CdTe is a mature thin-film absorber, backed by utility-scale plants and a manufacturer warranty of 0.3% per year degradation. Its main drawbacks are cadmium toxicity and a tellurium supply tied to copper refining. No source in this profile supports a space-flight or radiation-tolerance claim.",
    "recipe": {
      "line": "CdTe is a compound of one cadmium atom and one tellurium atom per formula unit, in the zinc-blende crystal structure. Wikipedia prints a molar mass of 240.01 g/mol and says CdTe is commercially available as a powder or as crystals, and can be made into nanocrystals. The page names only one production technique, growth of single crystals by HPVB and HPVZM methods.",
      "parts": [
        {
          "name": "Cadmium",
          "symbol": "Cd",
          "role": "The cadmium half of the lattice. Cadmium is a toxic element, and CdTe carries the GHS codes listed in the risks section."
        },
        {
          "name": "Tellurium",
          "symbol": "Te",
          "role": "The tellurium half of the lattice. Tellurium is recovered mainly as a byproduct of copper refining, according to the USGS."
        }
      ]
    },
    "risk_groups": [
      {
        "title": "For people",
        "lead": "Wikipedia prints GHS hazard codes for CdTe and a NIOSH limit for cadmium. It does not give a verdict on the powder.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "The compound",
            "line": "Wikipedia prints the GHS hazard codes H302, H312, H332, H410 and H411 for CdTe, under the signal word Warning. A Kurt J. Lesker safety data sheet for the same CAS number prints H302, H312, H332, H400 and H410, also under the signal word Warning."
          },
          {
            "label": "Exposure limit",
            "line": "NIOSH lists 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd as a time-weighted average permissible exposure limit, and an IDLH of 9 mg/m3 as Cd."
          }
        ],
        "verdict": "Carries GHS hazard codes (Wikipedia)"
      },
      {
        "title": "If a module overheats",
        "lead": "These results come from laboratory heating tests and from air-emission figures on Wikipedia, not from field incidents.",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Lab heating",
            "line": "In lab tests at about 1100 °C, 0.4 to 0.6% of the cadmium content was released, according to Wikipedia."
          },
          {
            "label": "Air emissions",
            "line": "Wikipedia prints cadmium air emissions of 0.02 to 0.5 grams per GWh of PV electricity."
          }
        ]
      },
      {
        "title": "Handling and storage",
        "points": [
          {
            "label": "Dust",
            "line": "Keep airborne cadmium below 0.005 mg/m3 as Cd, the NIOSH limit printed on Wikipedia."
          },
          {
            "label": "Recycling",
            "line": "First Solar recovers up to 95% of semiconductor material and 90% of glass from end-of-life modules, per Wikipedia."
          },
          {
            "label": "Water",
            "line": "Wikipedia gives CdTe as insoluble in water, with a footnote placing the basis below 0.1 mg/L."
          }
        ]
      }
    ]
  },
  "updated": "2026-11-01",
  "review": {
    "status": "draft",
    "method": "assistant",
    "checked_values": 18,
    "unreachable": 2,
    "caveats": 2,
    "note": "Read by an AI assistant on 2026-11-01. 18 properties taken from fetched pages. Unreachable in this run: the PubChem record (browser-verification page) and the NREL efficiency chart (host did not resolve). The First Solar datasheet linked from the product page was not read. The AlSat-1N flight claim in the brief was not confirmed."
  },
  "sources": {
    "cdte-wiki": {
      "title": "Cadmium telluride",
      "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride (infobox, physical, optical and safety sections, read 2026-11-01)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
    },
    "cdte-pv-wiki": {
      "title": "Cadmium telluride photovoltaics",
      "id": "Wikipedia, Cadmium telluride photovoltaics (read 2026-11-01)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0 (Wikipedia)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-cadmium": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Cadmium",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-cadmium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-mcs2026-tellurium": {
      "title": "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Tellurium",
      "id": "USGS MCS 2026, February 2026",
      "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-tellurium.pdf",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "report",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "usgs-crit2025": {
      "title": "About the 2025 List of Critical Minerals (USGS, final list of 60 minerals)",
      "id": "Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals, November 2025",
      "url": "https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program/science/about-2025-list-critical-minerals",
      "year": 2025,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "public domain (USGS)"
    },
    "ec-crm": {
      "title": "Critical raw materials (European Commission, critical raw materials list)",
      "id": "European Commission critical raw materials page",
      "url": "https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "web",
      "license": "European Commission web page"
    },
    "firstsolar-s7": {
      "title": "First Solar Series 7 CdTe module (EMEA product page)",
      "id": "First Solar product page, undated; read 2026-11-01",
      "url": "https://www.firstsolar.com/en-EMEA/Products/Series-7",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "manufacturer web page, linked not reproduced"
    },
    "kjlesker-cdte-sds": {
      "title": "Safety data sheet: Cadmium Tellurium (pieces), Kurt J. Lesker Company",
      "id": "SDS No. 4766, revision 2, revision date 8/31/2018 (copy hosted by UT Dallas)",
      "url": "https://cores.research.utdallas.edu/files/2023/04/CdTe-MSDS.pdf",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "datasheet",
      "license": "supplier safety data sheet, linked not reproduced"
    }
  },
  "license": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "url": "https://spacemushroom.com/profiles/cadmium-telluride/"
}